Resources

This section provides information and ideas for activities. It will help adult leaders and Youth Camp Leaders plan the camp activities and work with the campers to complete certification requirements.

Some information specific to your area will need to be obtained locally, such as information about fire safety regulations, hiking trails, protecting the local environment, stars and constellations, plants and animals native to your area, food preparation and preservation, and survival and emergency procedures. Check with schools, libraries, and government agencies for this information. Those who present this information need not be experts, but they should be knowledgeable enough to instruct with confidence. Specialists may also be called to provide assistance.

When planning and selecting activities to fit your schedule and needs, consider the original ideas of both youth and adult leaders.

Backpacking

Backpacking requires physical stamina. Young women should make overnight backpacking trips only after they have hiked several easy trails and learned backpacking techniques. Each backpacker should protect the beauties of nature and leave no evidence of her visit to remote areas.

Hike in groups of four to six, and travel quietly. Stay on existing trails when traveling in an area that has trails. If you choose a route without trails, spread out to help preserve the undergrowth. Pick up any litter you find along the way. Leave rocks, flowers, and wood in their natural environment for others to enjoy. A good rule to remember is to leave the area as you found it or in even better condition.

Check with the local authorities for suitable camping areas; then plan your trip to avoid areas that need to recover from overuse.

Suggested Equipment

Bring a tent or tarp for shelter, sleeping bag, pad (optional), lightweight stove and fuel, lightweight eating utensils, small flashlight with extra batteries and bulb, compass, knife, waterproof matches, biodegradable soap, first-aid kit, sunscreen, insect repellent, towels, water canteen or flask, and bags to carry unburnable trash and garbage.

When deciding how much weight to carry, start with one-fifth or one-fourth of your body weight. Consider your physical condition, experience, and the terrain to be covered.

Clothing

Select clothing that is comfortable and provides protection from the elements. Bring a change of clothing and be prepared for variable weather conditions. By wearing several layers of clothing, you can more easily adapt to changes in weather. You may need rain gear to keep dry and a hat for protection from the sun.

Select footwear that is comfortable and appropriate for the area in which you will be hiking. Footwear should protect and support your feet.

Packing a Backpack

Consider the most effective use of space in your backpack. Organize items as follows:

• Items you will need last at the bottom and heaviest items on top

• Emergency items readily available

• Soft items next to your back

• Fuel separate from clothes and food

If you are traveling on water, expect to get wet and pack accordingly.

A well-packed backpack looks neat and is evenly balanced, with most of the weight at the top. It fits snugly on your shoulders and allows you to stand upright and walk in comfort.

Bedrolls and Sleeping Bags

Bedrolls

You do not need to have a sleeping bag to camp out. Many campers prefer to make their own bedrolls. To make a bedroll, you will need a large waterproof covering, as many blankets as desired, and a sheet or sleeping blanket. Follow the instructions below to put the bedroll together.

1. Place the waterproof covering flat on the ground. Place the first blanket so that it covers two-thirds of the waterproof covering (A-B).

   first blanket

   A

   First Blanket

   B

2. Place the second blanket so that its edge is at the middle of the first blanket (C-D).

   second blanket

   A

   C

   Second Blanket

   B

   D

3. Alternate the placement of the remaining blankets in the same way until all are down. Fold the sheet or sleeping blanket in half, and place it in the middle of the bedroll (A-B-C-D).

   folded sheet

   A

   C

   Folded Sheet

   B

   D

4. Starting with the last blanket you put down, fold the blankets one at a time over the sheet or sleeping blanket (A-B-C-D).

   fold

   folds 1 and 2

   A

   C

   Fold

   B

   D

   A

   C

   Fold 1

   Fold 2

   B

   D

5. Fold the waterproof covering over the blankets. Get into the bedroll from the top. You should be lying inside the folded sheet or sleeping blanket.

6. When you are packing, put your nightclothes and toilet articles inside the bedroll and roll it from the bottom.

   begin rolling here

   Begin rolling here

7. Tie ropes around the bedroll.

   tied bedroll

Sleeping Bags

You will enjoy camping more if you are comfortable when sleeping, so choosing the right sleeping bag is important. The main purpose of a sleeping bag is to protect your body against the cold. Sleeping bags are made of various materials. Choose the type that will best serve your needs.

After you have chosen your sleeping bag, take good care of it. Never put it away when it is moist or dirty. To help keep your sleeping bag clean, fold an old sheet in half and slip it inside the bag. If your bag becomes dirty, follow the manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning it.

Put some sort of ground cover under your sleeping bag to protect it. You may want to dig shallow depressions for your hips and shoulders to make sleeping more comfortable.

Campfire or Evening Programs

Plan campfire or evening programs around a purpose or theme. Have a well-chosen site and, if fire regulations permit, a well-built campfire (see “Fires,” p. 32). Involve all campers through such activities as group singing or a group game. If possible, give each person the opportunity to participate individually or as part of a small group.

Campfire or evening programs are good times to develop the camp theme, emphasize the Young Women Values, and help young women develop talents such as playing musical instruments, telling stories, singing, doing dramatizations, or dancing.

Camps—Types

Young Women Camp

Generally, a Young Women camp is held over a period of three to six days, depending on the availability of campsites, cost, and other local circumstances. The type of camping ranges from primitive and tent camping to camping in developed facilities with cabins or other structures. With careful planning, the goals of Young Women camp and camp certification can be accomplished in whatever setting and amount of time are available.

Day Camp

In areas where overnight camping is prohibited or when other circumstances do not permit overnight camping, day camp may be used effectively.

The activities at day camp can be similar to those in other types of camps except that the campers return home each night. Usually day camp is held at a recreation site near the young women’s homes—a park, picnic area, or even a backyard. Young Women camp goals can be accomplished and camp certification completed in a series of day camps.

Overnight Camp

In an overnight camp, participants arrive at the campsite one day, spend the night, and return home the following day. Activities are similar to those in other types of camps.

Primitive Camp

In primitive camping, campers use their skills and ingenuity to prepare a suitable and comfortable campsite. Before planning a primitive camp, find out about local regulations governing this type of camping.

Winter Camp

Winter camps enable campers to learn the skills necessary to face the challenges of winter weather. Such camps must be carefully planned and prepared for so that the campers will remain safe. Follow local regulations. Make sure that campers have clothing, sleeping equipment, and shelter that will keep them warm.

Family Camp

Relationships between family members can be strengthened and spiritual experiences shared as young women camp with their families. The information included in this manual can be used for family camping as well as Young Women camping.

Camp Traditions

Camp traditions can help young women feel unified, develop feelings of individual worth, and increase their commitment to the gospel. Activities, songs, scriptures, customs, or ideas that are repeated each year at camp can become traditions. Review the traditions of your camp to ensure that they help to strengthen the testimonies of the young women.

Compass

(See “Orienteering,” p. 61.)

Devotionals

(See “Testimony-building Experiences,” p. 68.)

Dramatizations and Skits

Dramatizations and skits can be enjoyable as campfire activities or as part of hikes planned with a theme. Scripture stories and parables, scenes from the history of the Church, stories from local Church history, the Young Women Values, or the camp theme can provide material for dramatizations. Ensure that all dramatizations and skits are thoughtfully chosen, well-rehearsed, uplifting, and appropriate.

Environmental Awareness

Every setting in which a Young Women camp takes place should be used with respect, whether it is the mountains, desert, seacoast, snow country, jungle, or an urban site. All campers are responsible to help take care of the environment. Learn about the area where the camp will be held before you arrive. Local authorities could provide information about vegetation, wildlife, water sources, and fire or safety regulations. Practice and carry out camping and recreation practices that will safeguard the area. Before leaving the area, restore the campsite to its original state.

Doing such things as the following will help campers learn to respect the environment:

• Learning more about the beauty of the earth, its creation, and its Creator

• Understanding that we have a responsibility to care for the Lord’s creations (see D&C 104:13)

• Assuming individual responsibility to protect the environment from pollution and misuse

• Teaching others by example about care of the environment

Doing such things as the following will help campers protect and restore the environment:

• Helping to preserve endangered plants or animals

• Providing for proper disposal of refuse

• Rebuilding or marking a trail

• Helping to preserve the purity of a stream, pond, or lake

• Repairing camp facilities

• Planting trees

• Preventing erosion

• Helping with a research project on the environment

• Establishing a nature trail

• Providing safety markers for a boat harbor, waterfront, or beach

• Carrying out projects at a city park, botanical garden, or zoo

Always consult with local officials and agencies and work in cooperation with them. Such agencies can suggest projects that are most needed and can instruct and support the young women.

Fires

Fire Safety

It is important to know how to build, light, and extinguish fires safely. Contact the appropriate agency to obtain the fire regulations for the area in which you will be camping. Agency personnel may be willing to meet with the young women to teach fire safety. Following are some guidelines for fire safety:

1. Never light a fire anywhere without permission from the owner of the land. In the case of government-owned property such as parks, reservations, and forests, follow the regulations for the area.

2. Learn fire-fighting procedures before you go camping.

3. Immediately after you arrive at camp, learn where any fire fighting equipment is located. Make sure you know how to use it.

4. When regulations permit an open fire, build the fire in an open area of dirt, rock, or sand at least six feet away from any trees, bushes, or fallen logs. Never build a fire against a fallen tree, a large log, or a stump with roots that go into the ground.

5. Clear the ground within a radius of six feet from the fire by scraping away dry leaves, dry grass, twigs, or pine needles. Replace these items when you are through with your fire. Hollow out a section of ground in the center. Rocks conduct heat and may be used to line the hole. Avoid rocks containing limestone, shale, or moisture because they may explode when heated. In a grassy area, dig up the turf with a shovel and store it in a moist, shady spot. After the fire has been extinguished, replace and water the turf so that it will continue to grow.

6. Do not build fires larger than you need for your purpose. Cooking fires should be just large enough to heat the food. Large fires waste fuel, are hard to control, and are difficult to work over.

7. Keep fires under control. Fire-fighting tools such as water, sand, and shovels should be readily available.

8. Stay close to the fire and watch it carefully. Never leave a fire unattended, and never go to sleep before the fire is completely out.

9. Extinguish the fire completely before leaving the area. (See instructions on p. 33.)

Gathering Fuel

Gather tinder, kindling, and fuel before beginning to build the fire. Keep the woodpile close enough to the fire for convenience, but far enough away for safety.

Tinder is pieces of wood or vegetation that are longer but no thicker than a match. Fine twigs, bundles from tops of bushes and weeds, pieces of pine, thin pieces of bark, and dried leaves and grass make good tinder.

Kindling is dry sticks and twigs that are six to twelve inches long and just thicker than tinder up to the thickness of a thumb. Larger pieces of wood may be split for kindling. Kindling should be dry enough to snap when broken. Sticks that bend without snapping are probably green and hard to burn.

Fuel is firm pieces of wood that are larger than kindling, including fairly large logs, depending on the fire’s use.

Types of Fires

The type of fire you build will depend on what you plan to use it for.

Tepee Fire

Build a tepee fire as the beginning for all other types of fires. It is good to use in reflector oven baking because it makes a high flame.

To build a tepee fire, place a large handful of tinder in the center of the fire area. Surround the tinder with sticks of kindling arranged so that the tops of the pieces touch like the poles of a tepee. Arrange larger sticks of fuel in tepee fashion around the kindling. Leave a small space on the side of the tepee that faces the wind to allow air to reach the middle of the fire. Reach into this space with a match and light the tinder. The flame will spread to the kindling and then to the fuel. More fuel can be added as needed. Keep the fire compact, with each piece of wood touching other pieces.

tepee fire

Crisscross Fire

A crisscross fire is used when you need a deep bed of coals such as in Dutch oven cooking, wiener roasts, and foil cooking. Because it burns for a long time, it is also good for campfire programs. To build a crisscross fire, first build a small tepee fire between two large pieces of wood. Using the large pieces for support, lay several layers of fuel in a crisscross fashion over the top of the tepee fire. Light the tepee fire. The crisscrossed pieces of fuel will heat up and catch fire.

crisscross fire

Star Fire

The star fire is sometimes called the lazy man’s fire because the fuel is simply pushed into the fire as it burns. Begin by building a tepee fire. Once it is burning, place pieces of fuel in a star fashion around the fire. Push these pieces into the fire as necessary. Use this fire for slow heat, the kind needed for one-pot and tripod cooking.

star fire

Extinguishing Fires

Campfires

Extinguish regular campfires by smothering them with dirt or sprinkling them with water.

To extinguish campfires with dirt, do the following:

1. Let the fire burn down.

2. Separate the burning pieces, but keep them within the fire area.

3. Pour dirt over the hot coals and ashes to smother the fire. Keep stirring the coals and ashes until they are extinguished.

4. Make sure the fire is completely out by holding your hands over the ashes to see if you feel any heat. Use more dirt if necessary.

5. When the fire is cold, cover the area with dirt. Replace any sod you have removed. Make the spot look as if no one has been there.

To extinguish campfires with water, do the following:

1. Wet the area around the fire.

2. Sprinkle water on the fire. Do not pour water on the fire because the resulting steam may burn you.

3. Spread out the coals with a stick.

4. Sprinkle the coals again with water. Turn smoldering sticks and wet them on all sides.

5. Pour water on the fire, and stir until only soaking wet ashes remain.

6. Make sure the fire is completely out by holding your hands over the ashes to see if you feel any heat. Use more water if necessary.

7. When the fire is cold, cover the area with dirt. Replace any sod you have removed. Make the spot look as if no one has been there.

Accidental Fires

If a fire starts accidentally, do the following:

1. Send someone to report the fire to local fire fighters.

2. Use fire-fighting equipment immediately.

3. If a tent catches fire or there is a fire near a tent, pull out the tent poles. Fire in a tent without poles can be smothered by stamping on the tent or throwing water on it, but a standing tent will burn quickly.

4. Follow the instructions of your leaders.

If your clothing begins to burn, roll yourself in the dirt; wrap yourself in a blanket, sleeping bag, or towel; or jump into a body of water. Do not run. Running makes the fire burn faster.

If a grease fire begins while you are cooking, pour salt, soda, flour, or sand on it. Do not pour water on flaming grease. If possible, smother the fire by covering it with a metal lid, or use a small aerosol fire extinguisher.

Starting a Fire without Matches

Flint and Steel

For emergency purposes, many campers carry flint and steel as part of their equipment. You may purchase a small kit at a sporting goods store, or you may find the flint in your area. Flint is a very hard rock with sharp edges that can sometimes be found in the gravel used on roads. Other types of very hard rock may also produce sparks. Test them by striking them with a piece of steel, such as the back side of a closed pocketknife blade or a steel tool.

To start a fire using flint and steel, make a nest shape out of fine steel wool or lint from a clothes dryer. This is the spark catcher. Add a few pieces of very fine tinder to it and shield it from the wind. Strike the flint with the steel until sparks ignite the spark catcher. Blowing the sparks can help the flame burn. Add more tinder and kindling gradually.

flint

Magnifying Glass

A magnifying glass or a pair of eyeglasses with thick lenses can also be used to start a fire if the sun is shining brightly. Adjust the glass to focus a bright spot of sunlight on your tinder or spark catcher. It should smolder within a few minutes. Blow the flame gently and add more tinder gradually.

Waterproofing Matches

Keep matches in waterproof containers. Store them in more than one place in case of rain or accident.

First Aid

The first-aid information in this manual is not intended to cover all first-aid concerns. Check local resources for additional information as needed and for updated information.

First aid is an important part of self-reliance. By knowing first-aid skills, you can be prepared for accidents wherever they occur, not only at camp but at home or school or church.

First aid is the first help given to the victim of an accident. There are three primary objectives in giving first aid:

• Stop life-threatening dangers.

• Keep the victim safe from further harm.

• Get proper medical help.

The scene of an accident can be frightening. An injured person may be crying or screaming. The sight of blood may scare you. The most important thing you can do is stay calm. Focus your attention on the job of keeping people safe. Act with confidence, using the first-aid skills that you know.

Following are four vital steps for treating accident victims. Perform them in the order they are given.

1. Immediately treat cases in which a victim’s life is threatened. The most serious cases are stopped breathing, no heartbeat, severe bleeding, choking, and poisoning by mouth.

2. Send someone to a telephone or to look for help. Give any medical personnel full information about the location and the extent of the injuries.

3. Treat every accident victim for shock.

4. Examine the victim for other injuries that may require first aid.

More information about these steps is provided below.

1. Treat Life-threatening Cases

Most accidents you come upon will be minor. You will have plenty of time to give first-aid treatment. However, the following five situations are life-threatening. You must quickly administer the correct first aid or the victim may die.

Stopped Breathing

There are many accidents that can cause a person to stop breathing. These include drowning, being caught in a burning building, being struck by lightning, or coming in contact with an electrical wire. To save a victim who is not breathing, you must begin first aid immediately. The brain can survive only about four minutes without oxygen before suffering serious damage. At normal temperatures, a person cannot live without air for more than ten or twelve minutes.

Whenever you come upon an accident, find out if the victim is breathing. Is the chest rising and falling? When you place your ear near the mouth and nose, can you hear or feel exhaled air? If not, immediately start giving rescue breathing as follows.

Step 1. Open the victim’s airway. To do this, make sure the victim is lying on her back. Tilt her head back so her chin is pointing up. Lift her chin with one hand, and press down on her forehead and pinch her nostrils shut with your other hand.

Step 2. Take a deep breath. Open your mouth wide and seal it over the victim’s mouth. Blow into her mouth to fill her lungs. Look to see if her chest rises. If the victim is a child, seal your mouth over both her mouth and nose; then blow gently.

Step 3. Remove your mouth and take another deep breath. Watch to see that the victim’s chest falls.

Repeat steps 2 and 3 every five seconds for anyone over nine years of age, every three seconds for anyone nine years of age or younger.

If the victim’s chest does not rise and fall, no air is reaching her lungs. Try to tilt her head back further so that her tongue does not block her airway. If something appears to be blocking the airway, perform the Heimlich maneuver (see p. 36). Then quickly begin repeating steps 2 and 3.

Don’t give up. Continue rescue breathing until a person with medical training tells you to stop or it becomes impossible for you to keep going.

No Heartbeat

Accidents that cause a person to stop breathing may also stop her heart. With cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), you can start a person’s heart beating again. CPR requires careful instruction by a qualified person. You will need to master this skill before attempting to use it.

First, make sure the person is on her back and her head is not higher than her heart. Clear her airway as explained for rescue breathing, and give her two rescue breaths.

Place two or three fingers on the person’s neck in the groove between the voice box and muscle and feel for her pulse. If you do not feel the pulse, locate the bottom of her sternum. Place the heel of one hand on the sternum, two fingers’ width above the bottom of the sternum. Place your other hand over the first.

Kneel above the victim with your shoulders over your hands and your elbows straight and locked. Press down smoothly and evenly, keeping your fingers off the victim’s ribs. Apply enough force to depress the sternum one to two inches. Press down about 80 to 100 times a minute. Count aloud to establish a rhythm: “one-and-two-and-three-and-four.” After every fifteen compressions, give the victim two rescue breaths.

After you have completed four cycles of fifteen compressions and two rescue breaths, check to see if the person’s pulse and breathing have returned. If there is no pulse, give two rescue breaths and resume the compressions. Continue for several minutes before checking the pulse again. If there is a pulse but no breathing, give rescue breathing to the victim.

A person may need CPR as the result of a heart attack. The following are signs that a person is having a heart attack:

• Uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fulness, or pain in the center of the chest behind the sternum. The feeling may spread to the shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, and back. It may last two minutes or longer, and it may come and go. It need not be severe. Sharp, stabbing twinges of pain usually are not signals of a heart attack.

• Unusual sweating, for instance, perspiring even though a room is cool.

• Nausea with an urge to vomit.

• Shortness of breath.

• A feeling of weakness.

If a person has any of these signs, have her sit or lie down, whichever is more comfortable for her. Get her to medical care as soon as possible, following the steps for getting help on page 37. Keep watching her. If her heart stops, give her CPR.

Severe Bleeding

If a person is bleeding severely, the bleeding must be stopped as soon as possible. If blood is spurting out, an artery has been cut.

If the wound is on an arm or leg, bleeding from a cut artery can be controlled by pressing the artery against the bone at one of four pressure points. If the bleeding is from a leg, press the artery with the heel of your hand against the pelvic bone at the point shown in the illustration.

pressure point

Pressure Point

If the bleeding is from an arm, press the artery with your fingers against the upper arm bone at the point shown in the illustration.

pressure point

Pressure Point

If the blood is not spurting out or if you are unable to use a pressure point, cover the wound with a pad—a bandanna or scarf, shirt, or any other cloth. Press hard to stop the flow of blood. Raising an injured arm or leg above body level will help to control the bleeding. If the pad becomes bloodsoaked, don’t remove it. Put another pad on top of the first and continue the pressure. When you have stopped the flow of blood, tie the pad firmly in place with whatever is available. Get medical help.

Choking

Food caught in the throat is like a cork stuck in a plastic bottle. Nothing can get in, but if you squeeze the bottle just right, the cork will fly out.

To help someone who is choking and cannot breathe, perform the Heimlich maneuver. Step behind the victim and put your arms around her midsection. Clasp your hands together with the knuckle of one thumb just above her navel. With a sharp, inward thrust, drive your hands up under her rib cage. The food should pop loose. If it doesn’t, repeat this maneuver several more times.

If the victim is very large or pregnant or has lost consciousness, chest thrusts may be more effective. Straddle the victim on the floor. Place one hand atop the other between the navel and rib cage. Thrust the heel of your hand sharply inward and upward eight times on the abdomen just below the sternum. Probe the victim’s mouth with a hooked finger. Remove any obstructions, and be ready to start rescue breathing.

If you ever choke on food and cannot breathe, clutch your throat with your hand. This is the universal sign for choking, and it may bring someone to your aid. You can perform the Heimlich maneuver on yourself by pulling your fist into your upper abdomen. Or you can bend over the back of a chair and force it against your abdomen.

choking

Poisoning by Mouth

Many substances found in a home and at camp are poisonous. Some mushrooms, fungi, berries, and leaves are poisonous if swallowed. Eat no wild plants unless you are very sure they are safe.

If someone is poisoned, get to a telephone as quickly as possible with the container or item that caused the poisoning. Call a poison control center, emergency medical service, or a doctor and follow the instructions. Treat the victim for shock and check breathing frequently. Do not give anything by mouth unless you have been advised to do so by medical professionals.

Save any containers and vomit. These will help the doctor identify the poison and give the right treatment.

2. Send for Help

When an emergency occurs, get to a telephone if possible. Most cities have a police or sheriff’s office, a rescue squad, a fire department, and a hospital ambulance service. In the United States and Canada, you may be able to reach all of these emergency services by dialing 911 or 0 for an operator. In most countries you can get help by dialing for an operator.

For your personal use, make a list of emergency telephone numbers that you could call in your area. You could include the following:

• Police

• Fire

• Ambulance

• Family doctor

• Poison control center

• Relative or neighbor

• Rescue or emergency medical service

Leaders should take to camp a list of emergency telephone numbers for the city closest to the camp.

When reporting emergencies, speak slowly and clearly. Tell who you are, and give a brief description of what happened and the extent of the injuries or problem. Give full information about where you are. Wait for any questions or instructions.

When you are not near a telephone and cannot call for help, see if the victim can walk alone or with some support to a road. When injuries are serious, signal for help (see p. 67) or send two people for help if possible. Make sure that one person stays with the victim.

3. Treat for Shock

A person may go into shock after any accident. Shock is a sudden lowering of strength caused by pain, fear, and sometimes loss of blood. Symptoms of shock include confused behavior; very fast or very slow breathing; very fast or very slow pulse rate; weakness in the arms and legs; cool and moist skin; pale or bluish skin, lips, and fingernails; and enlarged pupils.

Treat every accident victim for shock. Injury always causes some degree of shock, but the victim may not be affected right away. Prompt first aid may prevent severe shock from setting in.

Have the injured person lie down. If you do not suspect head or neck injuries or leg fractures, place her on her back and raise her feet ten to twelve inches. If she is vomiting, place her on her side. If she has trouble breathing, place her on her back with head and shoulders elevated.

Maintain normal body temperature. If it is hot, provide shade. If it is cold, cover her by placing blankets or sleeping bags underneath her as well as on top. If the victim is conscious, let her sip a little water.

Never leave an accident victim alone. Fear and uncertainty may increase shock. Talk to her in a calm voice. Even a victim who appears to be unconscious may be able to hear you.

If a victim faints, keep her lying down until she recovers. Loosen tight clothing around her neck and raise her feet. If she does not recover right away, get medical help.

If you ever feel faint yourself, sit down and put your head between your knees. You may also lie down and raise your legs.

4. Treat Other Injuries

Animal Bites

If the bite of a dog, cat, rat, or any warm-blooded wild animal breaks the skin, it is not an ordinary wound. The animal may suffer from rabies, a deadly disease carried in its saliva. The only way to learn if an animal has rabies is to have it caught and kept under observation. If someone is bitten by an animal, you should give first aid, get medical help, and then call the police or other authorities so they can try to capture the animal.

To give first aid, wash the bite with plenty of soap and water to remove the saliva. Cover the wound with a sterile bandage, and get the victim to a doctor.

Blisters

Blisters on the foot are most often caused by shoes that do not fit well or are new and stiff. Working without gloves may result in blisters on the hand. Break in your shoes or boots by wearing them around home before using them on the trail. A pair of thin inner socks under thicker hiking socks will reduce the friction on your feet.

If you feel a hot spot forming on your foot as you walk, stop right away and treat it before it becomes a blister. For a hot spot or a blister, wash your foot or other affected area with soap and water. Cut a piece of moleskin (adhesive-backed felt cloth) in the shape of a doughnut and put it on your foot, with the hole over the blister. Cut several more doughnut shapes and stack them on top of the first. If you do not have moleskin, you can cut a corner off a foam sleeping pad and trim it into a doughnut shape. Hold it in place over the blister with tape. When you resume hiking, the doughnut bandage will keep pressure off the blister and probably prevent it from breaking.

If you think a blister will break, sterilize a pin in the flame of a match. Prick the blister near its edge and press out the liquid. Protect the wound from pressure with a doughnut bandage and keep it clean with a sterile bandage.

Burns

When a burn covers a large area, the person will usually go into shock. Give first aid for shock and for the burn.

First-degree burns. With minor burns and sunburns, the skin gets red. Put the burned area in cool water or pour water over it until there is little or no pain. Then apply a moist dressing and bandage loosely. Where water is not available, apply a clean, dry dressing.

Second-degree burns. If blisters form, the burn is more serious. Do not break the blisters. This will make the injury worse by causing an open wound. If the blisters are not broken, place the burned area in cool water until the pain lessens. Then apply a moist dressing and bandage loosely. Do not apply creams, ointments, or sprays.

Third-degree burns. With the most severe burns, the skin may be burned away. Some flesh will be charred. If many nerve endings are damaged, there may be little pain. Do not try to remove any clothing; it may be sticking to the flesh. Do not apply creams, ointments, or sprays. Wrap a clean sheet around the victim and, if the weather is cool, cover her with blankets. Rush her to a hospital, for her life is threatened.

Cold Emergencies

Frostbite. If you are outside in cold weather, watch for signs of frostbite. A person’s ears, nose, fingers, or feet may feel numb. White or grayish-yellow patches may appear on her ears, nose, or cheeks.

If these things happen, move the victim inside a warm tent or building and warm the frozen body part. If an ear or part of the face is frozen, have the person remove a glove and cover the part with her warm hand. Have her put a frostbitten hand beneath an armpit, next to bare skin. If her toes are frozen, have her put her bare feet against the warm skin of your stomach or armpit. Do not rub or massage frozen skin.

You can also warm a frozen body part by holding it in warm, not hot, running water or wrapping it in a warm blanket. When the area becomes warm, have the person exercise injured fingers or toes. Get her to a doctor.

Hypothermia. When you hear that someone has died of exposure or frozen to death, the person may actually have died of hypothermia. Hypothermia occurs when the body loses more heat than it can generate.

A victim of hypothermia begins feeling chilly, tired, and irritable. If she receives no help, she begins to shiver. Soon her shivering becomes violent. She cannot think clearly enough to take care of herself. She may stumble and fall. If she continues to chill, the shivering will stop and she will be close to death.

Hypothermia is a threat to anyone who is not dressed warmly enough in cold weather. Wind, rain, and exhaustion increase the risk. The temperature does not have to be below freezing. A lightly dressed hiker caught in a cold, windy rainstorm is at great risk of hypothermia.

Prevent hypothermia by wearing enough clothing to keep yourself warm and dry. If bad weather traps you in the wilderness, put up your tent and crawl into your sleeping bag. Eat plenty of food and drink lots of fluids. Watch others in your group for signs of cold, hunger, and irritability.

If someone is showing any symptoms of hypothermia, take action immediately. Get the victim indoors or put up a tent. Take off her wet clothes and put her into a dry sleeping bag. If hypothermia is far advanced, the victim will not be able to warm herself. The rescuer must also strip down to underwear and get into the sleeping bag so that body contact can warm the victim slowly. Do not give an unconscious patient anything by mouth. Get a hypothermia victim to medical care.

Note: The body temperature of a swimmer drops steadily in water cooler than herself. The shivering that results is the beginning of hypothermia. If you begin shivering in the water, get out of the water and cover yourself. Exercise to get warm.

Cuts and Scratches

Cuts and scratches are openings in the skin, and even the smallest must be cleaned to remove germs that could cause infection.

For small cuts and scratches, clean the wound by washing it with soap and water. At home, use plenty of water right out of the faucet. On a hike or in camp, use water from your canteen or a clear stream. Let the wound dry; then apply an adhesive bandage.

For larger cuts, wash the wound with lots of soap and water. Let it dry; then keep dirt out of the wound by covering it with a sterile gauze pad. Hold the gauze in place with adhesive tape or with a triangular bandage, bandanna, or scarf folded into a cravat bandage (see p. 43). If you don’t have a gauze pad, fold a clean piece of cloth into a pad.

Fractures

A closed, or simple, fracture is a broken bone that has not caused an open wound. The victim will complain of pain around the injury. She will not want to move the injured area. A broken arm or leg may look bent or shortened. Swelling may occur, and the victim may suffer from shock.

An open, or compound, fracture has these same symptoms, but in addition, the sharp edges of the broken bone have cut through the flesh and skin.

The great danger in treating fractures is that incorrect handling may turn a closed fracture into an open one or make an open fracture more serious. Serious fractures can cripple the person or even endanger her life. It is important that you do the right things and even more important that you don’t do the wrong things.

Following are the things you should and should not do when giving first aid for fractures:

• Do let the victim lie with as little motion as possible right where you found her. Make her comfortable by tucking blankets, sleeping bags, or clothing under and over her.

• Do treat life-threatening cases, such as stopped breathing, no heartbeat, or severe bleeding. If blood is spurting from a wound, stop it with pressure against a pressure point (see p. 36) rather than direct pressure over a broken bone.

• Do treat for shock.

• Do call a doctor, emergency personnel, or an ambulance immediately.

• Don’t put the victim into a car and rush her to the hospital. Doing so may result in a closed fracture becoming an open fracture.

• Don’t try to set the bone—that’s the doctor’s job.

In cases of extreme emergency, you may have to move the victim before medical help arrives. In this situation, support the broken limb by making it immovable in a well-padded splint. Put on the splint before you move her! Don’t move the victim before the splinting is complete unless her location poses an immediate danger to her or the rescuers.

For information about making bandages, slings, and splints, see page 43.

Collarbone or Shoulder Fracture: No splint is necessary. Place the forearm in a sling with the hand raised about three inches higher than the elbow. Tie the upper arm against the side of the body with a wide cravat bandage. Make sure the bandage is not so tight that it stops circulation in the arm.

Lower Arm or Wrist Fracture: Use splints long enough to hold the wrist, lower arm, and elbow motionless. Place the splinted arm in a sling with the person’s thumb up and the hand slightly higher than the elbow. Use a cravat bandage to tie the upper arm against the side of the body. The body itself will act as a splint.

arm sling

Upper Arm Fracture: Tie one splint to the outside of the upper arm. Place the forearm in a sling; then use a cravat bandage to tie the upper arm against the side of the body.

side sling

Lower Leg Fracture: Apply two splints, each long enough to reach from the middle of the thigh to just past the heel. Place the splints on either side of the injured limb and bind them together in four or more places.

leg splint

Thigh Fracture: Apply one splint to the outside of the leg, extending from heel to armpit, and one on the inside of the leg, extending from heel to crotch. Bind the splints together. Use four or more binders around the splints and leg and three binders around the upper part of the outside splint and the body. The muscles of the upper leg are strong enough to pull the broken ends of the thighbone into the flesh. Therefore, these procedures should be used only to take care of an emergency until medical care can be obtained. The patient should not be moved any great distance without a traction splint. Ambulances carry these splints, and they can be made by people with advanced first-aid training.

thigh splint

Heat Emergencies

Exposure to heat makes the body work to keep itself cool. Sometimes the body’s cooling system becomes strained, resulting in heat exhaustion. Or it breaks down completely, resulting in heatstroke. Common sense will protect you from heat problems. Drink plenty of fluids. Rest in the shade when you feel too warm. If the weather is hot, do less hard physical work and play.

Heat Exhaustion. Heat exhaustion may affect a person outdoors or in an overheated room. The symptoms are as follows:

• Pale face with cold sweat on the forehead. The whole body may feel cool and clammy from perspiration.

• Shallow breathing.

• Nausea and vomiting.

• Dilated pupils.

• Headache and dizziness.

Move the patient to a cool, shady spot. Place her on her back and raise her feet. Loosen her clothing. Fan her and put cool, wet cloths on her. Give her sips of water.

Heatstroke. Heatstroke is usually caused by exposure to the sun and is a life-threatening emergency. The victim’s body temperature rises quickly. Get medical assistance at once. The symptoms are as follows:

• Red, very hot face. The skin is often dry, but if the victim has been exercising hard, she may be covered with sweat.

• Very small pupils.

• Slow, noisy breathing.

• Rapid, strong pulse.

• Possible unconsciousness.

Quickly get the victim into a cool, shady spot. Place her on her back with her head and shoulders raised. Immediately undress her down to her underwear. Cover her, especially her head, with dripping wet towels, shirts, or cloths. Keep the coverings cool by dousing them with water or wringing them in cold water. Be ready at any time to begin rescue breathing.

Insect Bites and Stings

Nonpoisonous Bites and Stings. The bites and stings of certain spiders, chiggers, ticks, and other insects can be painful. Some may cause infection.

Relieve the pain of insect bites or stings by applying ice water or a cold towel to the affected area. If the stinger of a bee or wasp is still in the skin, flick it away with your fingernail or the edge of a knife.

Ticks are small, hard-shelled insects that bury their tiny heads in the skin. Keep them away by wearing long pants and a long-sleeved shirt whenever you travel and camp in tick-infested woodlands and fields. Button your collar and tuck the cuffs of your pants into your boots or socks. Inspect your clothing and your body daily, especially the hairy parts of your body. Remove any ticks you find. A tick needs an hour or more to attach itself to a person. If a tick has fastened itself to you, grasp it with tweezers and gently pull it away from the skin. Twisting or jerking the tick may cause its head to break off in your skin. Once the tick is gone, wash the area of the bite with soap and water. Calamine lotion may ease any itching.

Chiggers are tiny insects that burrow into the skin and cause itching and redness. Try not to scratch chigger bites. You may find some relief by covering the bites with calamine lotion or clear fingernail polish.

Poisonous Bites and Stings. Some people are very allergic to insect stings and spider bites. If these people are bitten or stung, they may develop a dangerous condition called anaphylactic shock. This condition causes the tissues of the throat to swell and block the airway, and the person may have great trouble breathing. People who know they are allergic to stings and bites should carry the medicine they need to take if they are stung or bitten.

If a person does not have the necessary medication or if someone has been bitten by a black widow spider or brown recluse spider, do the following:

• Send someone to get medical help.

• Be sure the victim keeps breathing. Give rescue breathing if needed.

• If the bite is on an arm or leg, immediately tie a constricting band above the bite. Use a strip of cloth, bandanna, or scarf folded as a cravat bandage (see p. 43). Tighten it only enough to stop the blood in the skin. You must be able to slide your finger under the band. If the limb swells from the bite, loosen the band.

• Keep the arm or leg lower than the body.

• Put a cold compress or ice packed in a cloth on the bite.

• Treat for shock.

• Get the person to medical care very quickly.

Jellyfish Stings

Some jellyfish have thousands of stinging cells on their tentacles. When these cells are touched, they release a poison that causes a burning pain.

If someone receives a jellyfish sting, wash the affected area with diluted ammonia or rubbing alcohol. Quickly get the victim to medical care. People who are allergic to jellyfish stings may go into deep shock without warning.

Nosebleeds

A nosebleed looks bad but is usually not very serious. Most nosebleeds stop by themselves in a few minutes. Have the victim sit up and lean forward slightly to prevent blood from draining into her throat. Press on the bleeding nostril. Apply a cool, wet cloth to the nose and face.

Puncture Wounds

Puncture wounds can be caused by pins, splinters, nails, fishhooks, and knife wounds. All of these may allow tetanus germs into a wound that is difficult to clean.

To give first aid, take out any foreign matter; then squeeze gently around the wound. Wash the wound with soap and water. Apply a sterile bandage and get the person to a doctor. A tetanus antitoxin shot may be needed to prevent tetanus.

If someone has been snagged by a fishhook, cut the line and let a person with medical training remove the hook from the flesh. At camp, you may have to do the job yourself. First, push the barb out through the skin and snip it off with pliers, wire cutters, or even nail clippers. Then back the barbless hook out of the wound.

Skin Poisoning from Plants

The poison in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac is contained in oily sap throughout the plant. Touching these plants may cause the skin to become red and itchy. Later, blisters may form.

The sap of poisonous plants takes about twenty minutes to bind to the skin. If you think you have touched a poisonous plant, rinse your skin immediately with soap and water or just water if you do not have soap. Calamine lotion may relieve itching. Try not to scratch the area. Remove any lingering sap by laundering clothing that has come in contact with poisonous plants. (For additional information about poisonous plants, see p. 58.)

Snakebites

Both harmless and poisonous snakes may strike when they feel threatened. The bite of a nonpoisonous snake requires only ordinary first aid for small wounds. Snakes are not warm-blooded, so they cannot carry rabies.

First aid for the bite of a poisonous snake is more complicated and must begin quickly:

• Have the victim lie down and rest the bitten part lower than the rest of the body. Keep her calm and quiet.

• Put a constricting band two to four inches above the bite to slow the spread of the venom. Make it just tight enough so that it is not easy to push your fingers between the band and the skin. If the area swells, loosen the band.

• Treat the victim for shock.

• Get medical help immediately. If you know what kind of snake bit the person, tell the doctor.

Something in the Eye

If someone gets something in her eye, have her blink her eyes, and tears may flush out the object. If that does not work, pull the upper lid down over the lower one. The lower lashes may brush out the object. Or, if the object is under the lower lid, place your thumb on the skin just below the lid and pull it down gently. Lift out the speck with a corner of a sterile gauze pad or clean handkerchief. If that fails, cover the eye with a gauze pad and get the person to medical care.

Sprained Ankle

If your foot twists, the tendons and ligaments of your ankle may stretch too far, resulting in a sprained ankle.

To treat a sprained ankle, do not remove your shoe. It will support your ankle. For added protection, tie an ankle bandage under the shoe and up around your ankle. If you do not have shoes on, lie down. Raise your leg and put cold, wet towels around the ankle to reduce the swelling. Seek medical care.

ankle splint

Bandages, Slings, and Splints

Cravat Bandage

A cravat bandage is used to hold a pad or splint in place. Make it by folding a triangular bandage, bandanna, or scarf. You can also use a piece of cloth folded into a triangle. Fold the point up to the long edge. Finish by folding the bottom edge twice to the top edge.

folded sling

Sling

Make a sling from a large triangular bandage, bandanna, scarf, or piece of cloth folded into a triangle. Use it to support an injured hand, arm, or shoulder. You can tie an overhand knot in the large angle of the triangle to help support the person’s arm.

Place the bandage over the chest with the overhand knot at the elbow of the injured arm and one end over the opposite shoulder. Bring the remaining end up to the shoulder. Tie the two ends together behind the neck so that the hand is held slightly higher than the elbow.

sling

Splint

A splint is any stiff material that can be bound to a fractured limb to prevent the broken bone from moving and tearing the flesh. It should be longer than the bone that is fractured. Pad the splint with soft material.

Use whatever materials you can find nearby. For the splint, use boards, tent poles, branches, hiking sticks, ski poles, shovel handles, heavy cardboard, folded newspapers, or magazines.

For padding, use clothing, blankets, pillows, or crumpled paper. Padding makes splints fit better and eases the person’s pain.

Bind the splints with triangular bandages, bandannas, scarves, strips of cloth, or belts.

Look around you. Determine what is within reach that you could use for splints, padding, and binding.

Transportation of Injured People

Moving an injured person requires great care. A seriously injured person should be moved by someone giving first aid only in cases of extreme emergency—and then only after the patient has received first aid and has had possible fractures splinted. An accident victim suspected of having neck, back, or head injuries should be moved only under the guidance of qualified medical personnel. Use the following methods to move injured people.

Walking Assist

A person who has had a minor accident and feels weak may be assisted to walk. Bring one of her arms over your shoulder and hold onto her wrist. Place your free arm around her waist.

walking assistance

One-person Carry

This is best done by carrying the person piggyback. Kneel in front of her with your back to her stomach. Bring your arms under her knees to help lift her. When you stand up, keep your back straight and lift with your legs. Pull her hands over your shoulders and hold them in front of your chest.

piggyback

Two-person Carry

Use this carry when a patient is unconscious. Two bearers kneel on either side of the patient. Each slides one arm under the patient’s back and the other under her thighs. The bearers grasp each other’s wrists and shoulders and rise from the ground with the patient supported between them.

two-person lift

Four-handed Seat Carry

Two people can transport a conscious victim with this carry. Each bearer grasps her own right wrist with her left hand. The two bearers then grasp the other’s wrist with their free hand as shown. The patient sits on their hands and places her arms around their shoulders.

four-handed carry

Blanket Carry

If it is necessary to move a person from a smoke-filled room, place her on a blanket and drag her out, crawling on your hands and knees. If there are two rescuers, one person should stay outside and call for help. Unless visibility is fairly good, never enter a smoke-filled room. Stay outside and call for help.

Stretchers

If a patient must be moved for some distance or her injuries are serious, she should be carried on a stretcher. An emergency stretcher can be made from a door, a short ladder, a gate, a sheet of stiff plywood, or other materials.

To make a stretcher, start with two poles somewhat longer than the patient is tall. Use strong saplings, tool handles, oars, or tent poles. Button up two or three shirts or coats and push the poles through the sleeves. Or use blankets, a tent fly, or a sleeping bag with the bottom corner seams opened.

Rescues

First aid is something you do after an accident has happened. But sometimes a person must be rescued before any injuries can be treated. Use the following procedures for rescuing people.

Remember that you are of no help to an accident victim if you become a victim yourself. Do not attempt to rescue someone from drowning, electrical currents, or other hazardous situations unless you can do so without endangering yourself.

Building on Fire

Many people die each year in fires. You may help prevent some of these deaths by going into action the instant you see a burning building.

First, do all you can to warn people to get out of the building. Yell, bang on the door, ring the bell, or set off the fire alarm. Do not enter a burning building yourself. You may be overcome by smoke or trapped by flames.

Then call the fire department. While you are waiting for help, see if there is anything else you can do, such as calming frightened victims or directing traffic.

Person on Fire

A person’s clothing may catch fire from a campfire, burning oil, kerosene, or gasoline. Instinct tells the victim to run, but that is the worst thing to do. Running doesn’t put out the fire—it fans the flames.

If someone is on fire, rush up to her and tackle her if necessary to get her to the ground. Then slowly roll her over as you beat out the flames with your hands. Take care that your own clothes don’t catch fire. If there is a blanket, sleeping bag, or rug handy, wrap it around the victim to smother the flames. Once the fire is out, administer first aid for shock and burns.

Electrical Shock

After a storm, someone may stumble over a live power line that has been knocked down. A person fixing an electrical outlet may get a shock, or old wiring may cause an electrical accident.

If someone in a house is in contact with a live wire, shut off the current by pulling the main switch, or grab the cord where it is not bare or wet and pull it from the socket.

If you do not know where to find the main switch and cannot pull the plug, you will have to remove the wire from the victim. To do this, find a dry sheet, dry towel, or other dry cloth, encircle the wire with it, and pull the wire from the victim. Or push it away with a wooden board, a wooden hiking stick, or even a wooden spoon.

If you cannot move the wire, use the cloth or a board to move the victim instead. Do not touch the victim until she and the wire are separated!

Be very careful if there is water on the floor. It can carry a deadly current from a wire lying in it. If there is water, pull the main switch or call the police or fire department.

After the rescue, check the victim for breathing and heartbeat. Be prepared to give rescue breathing or CPR.

If a person is in contact with a live power line outdoors, do not attempt a rescue yourself. Call the electric company, police, or fire department.

Drowning

You can take care of yourself in the water if you are a good swimmer. To help someone else who is in danger of drowning, you must learn lifesaving techniques. Even if you have training, never attempt a water rescue by swimming if you can do it in some other way. The safest methods are to reach, throw, or go to the victim with support.

1. Reach. Most water accidents happen close to shore. Try to reach the victim with your hand or foot, a pole, branch, canoe paddle, towel, deck chair, or anything else close by.

2. Throw. Throw the victim a ring buoy, air mattress, life jacket, or beach ball. Or throw her a coil of rope, keeping hold of one end.

3. Go with support. When a victim cannot be rescued by reaching or throwing, try to go to her with support. Row out in a boat, or paddle a canoe, a surfboard, or a sailboard.

4. Swim. If everything else fails, under extreme circumstances you may have to swim to the aid of a drowning person. Never attempt a swimming rescue unless you are a strong swimmer! A rescue effort is very tiring. It can put you at risk of drowning. Go only if you have practiced lifesaving methods. A person struggling in the water is fighting for her life. In her fear and panic, she may try to grab you and hang on. Unless you know what to do, she may pull you under.

Many people drown after falling through ice on lakes, rivers, and streams. Act quickly if you see such an accident, but think clearly! Do not rush out onto the ice—you may break through, too. Instead, figure out a safe way to save the victim.

Try to reach her from shore with a pole, a branch, a coat, or a rope. Tie a loop in the rope for the victim to put her arm through. Use a bowline knot (see p. 55). Without a loop, she may not be able to hang on. At lakes where there is skating, you might find an emergency ladder. Push it out onto the ice until the victim can reach one end.

If you must go out onto the ice yourself, distribute your weight over the surface as much as possible. Lie on your stomach and crawl out over the ice until you are close enough to throw a rope to the victim or to reach her with a ladder or pole. When she has a firm grasp, slowly pull her out.

As a last resort, if helpers are close, form a human chain. Crawl out onto the ice while one person holds your ankles and another hangs onto hers. Grasp the victim by the wrists and crawl back.

Once the victim is on shore, get her into a warm shelter and treat her for hypothermia (see p. 39). If she has stopped breathing, start rescue breathing.

First-aid Kit

Each camp should have a complete first-aid kit. The following are approved items:

• 1 first-aid book

• 1 small bottle of hydrogen peroxide

• Moleskin

• 10 preptic swabs, large (isopropyl alcohol)

• 10 antiseptic swabs, large

• 2 ammonia inhalants

• 25 sterile pads, 2 by 2 inches (some tefla if available)

• 100 plastic bandages, 3/4 by 3 inches

• 2 dressings, 5 by 9 inches

• 1 eyewash, squeeze bottle, 4 ounces

• 1 triangular bandage, 40 inches

• 2 compress bandages, 4 by 7 inches

• 1 spool three-cut tape, 1/2 inch, 5/8 inch, and 7/8 inch by 5 yards

• 1 tweezers

• 1 gauze bandage, 2 inches by 6 yards

• 1 scissors

• 2 instant ice packs

• 40 knuckle bandages, 1 1/2 by 3 inches

• 40 fingertip bandages, 1 3/4 by 2 inches

• 10 butterfly closures, large

• 10 butterfly closures, medium

• 20 cotton swabs

• 1 tincture of green soap, 8 ounces

• 1 disposable mouth-to-mask resuscitator

• 2 disposable latex gloves

Each camper should also have a small first-aid kit. It could contain the following items:

• Moleskin for blisters

• A few adhesive bandages

• A small roll of adhesive tape

• Several sterile gauze pads, 2 by 2 inches

Each camper should keep a large gauze compress where she can reach it quickly to stop severe bleeding.

(The first-aid information in this manual is adapted from the Boy Scout Handbook, 1990. Used by permission of the Boy Scouts of America.)

First-aid Activities

Bandaging Relay

Divide the young women into teams, and assign each person a specific bandage to tie on someone who is stationed a short distance away. Each young woman could be assigned a different bandage to tie. The first person on each team runs and ties the bandage on her victim, then runs back to the group. The second person runs to the victim, removes the bandage, and ties the bandage she has been assigned. The first team to have all its members tie their bandages wins.

First-aid Mock Disaster

Have leaders hide at different locations around camp, posing as victims of multiple injuries. Place various first-aid items used to treat injuries beside each leader. Divide campers into groups of two or three, and give each group clues about where one of the injured victims is hidden. Each group must find its assigned victim, administer proper first aid, and transport her back to the first-aid station.

Food and Nutrition

Nutrition

When people are camping, their needs for water and food change. Being in the open air all day increases the body’s need for water. Whether campers are in camp or hiking, make plans for each one to have at least two quarts of water or other fluids for drinking each day. (The other fluids may include juice or milk.) Campers may need up to four quarts of water a day if they are exercising strenuously at high elevations.

Most camping days are filled with activity. Campers will need nutritious foods and balanced meals to provide energy for increased activity and to maintain normal body temperature. Stews, sandwiches, and pasta dishes are good foods for camping. For hiking, provide lightweight, high-energy foods such as nuts, granola, candy bars, fresh fruit, dried fruit or meat, and fruit juice. When planning the meals for camp, remember to have some meals that can be prepared rapidly and others that you can use when you have more time.

Nutrition Awareness Activity

This activity will help the young women realize what a blessing good food is and will teach them that they can choose to eat nutritiously. Provide a piece of fruit and a paper and pencil for each person. Ask each person to write the names of her ten favorite foods. When they have done this, ask them to do the following:

• Circle the food that you could most easily do without for one year.

• Put a plus sign next to each food that is nutritious.

• Put a dash next to each food that is high in calories and low in nutrients.

• Put a star next to each food that is low in calories.

• Put a check mark next to those foods that you eat too much of or too often.

• Put the number 5 by the foods that would not have been on your list five years ago.

• Put the letter T by those foods that are good for your teeth and the letter B by those foods that are not.

• Put the letter H by those foods that are good for your heart and the letter N by those foods that are not.

Then ask the young women questions like the following:

• Did you learn anything about your decisions about food from this exercise?

• Is there a variety of foods on your list, such as bread or cereal, fruit or vegetables, dairy products, and meat or other foods that provide protein?

• Is there balance in your diet?

• As a result of this exercise, is there anything about your eating habits that you want to change?

Read Doctrine and Covenants 89 together, and discuss the things that the Lord tells us to avoid and the foods that he tells us to eat. Discuss how media presentations affect what we eat. Has this effect been good or bad in the lives of the young women?

Food Preservation and Preparation

Protect food at camp from animals, insects, and spoilage. Any refrigeration equipment should be able to keep foods colder than 50 degrees Fahrenheit or 10 degrees Celsius.

Use the following steps to help keep food sanitary as you prepare it:

• Always wash your hands before preparing food.

• Do not allow persons with colds, skin infections, or cuts to handle food.

• Keep the preparation and serving areas clean and uncluttered.

• Use clean utensils for preparation and storage of food.

• Cover food between meals to protect it from dust and flies.

• Be sure to refrigerate perishable foods, especially foods in which bacteria multiply rapidly, such as cream dishes, custards, and foods with dressings containing eggs.

Cooking

Cooking at camp can be fun, especially when you experiment with different cooking methods and foods. You can learn to prepare nutritious meals using outdoor cooking methods.

If possible, use camp stoves rather than fires for cooking in order to help protect the environment. If you need to cook over fires, the following material describes a variety of cooking methods that you can use.

Dutch Oven

A Dutch oven is a heavy, cast-iron kettle with a flat bottom, close-fitting lid, and sturdy handle. It can be used for deep-fat frying or boiling of food above the coals. The kettle can be buried in the coals for roasting, stewing, or even baking. A crisscross fire should be used to provide the coals.

Dutch oven stew can be prepared by browning the meat in the kettle, then adding liquids and vegetables. The kettle is buried in a small pit, with coals beneath and on top.

To bake with a Dutch oven, line the inside of the kettle with foil. Place the food to be baked in the foil. Cakes, apples, pies, and biscuits can be cooked in this way. Bury the kettle in a small pit with coals beneath and on top. Allow about the same amount of time for baking that you would when using a regular oven.

dutch oven

Pit Cooking

Poultry, ham, roasts, potatoes, and corn on the cob or other vegetables can be wrapped in foil or placed in a Dutch oven and then cooked in a pit. The pit should be dug two or three times larger than the size of the Dutch oven or the total size of the foil packages. Line the pit with flat rocks. Build a tepee fire on the rocks. After it is burning well, build a crisscross fire over it. Keep this fire going until the rocks lining the pit are white with heat. This will take about an hour.

Remove the coals with a shovel and place the pot or wrapped meat on the rocks. If you have smaller packages of food, they can be laid on top with two to three inches of coals between the layers. Packages of food should not touch each other. Cover the pit with four to six inches of soil.

Meat about the size of a chicken will take 3 to 3 1/2 hours to cook. A larger piece of meat such as a roast could be cut in smaller pieces to reduce cooking time. Cooking time will vary according to the type of wood used and the depth of the coals. When using foil wrap, make sure that the ends are wrapped so juices will not escape.

foil cooking

Reflector Oven

A reflector oven is one of the few methods of cooking in which flames are used to cook food rather than coals. Heat from the flames reflects off the shiny sides of the oven and cooks food placed on a rack in the oven. A reflector oven can be used in front of a fireplace or an open fire. The temperature in the oven can be changed by moving the oven closer to or farther from the fire. Casseroles, cookies, pizza, and rolls can all be baked in this kind of oven. Reflector ovens can be purchased or made of large cans.

To make a can reflector oven, you will need the following materials:

1. A five- to ten-gallon can

2. A rack, cookie sheet, or similar material for a shelf

3. Tin snips

4. Wire

Cut out one side of the tin can with the tin snips. Mount the shelf securely in the center of the can using the wire. When you cook, place the baking pan on the shelf.

reflector oven

Stone Fireplace

To make a stone fireplace, use two flat rocks to hold a kettle or skillet over the fire. This method is good for cooking eggs, bacon, or pancakes. Food set on the stones will stay warm while other food is cooking. Place an iron grill on the flat rocks to provide more cooking area and make the kettle or skillet more stable.

stone fireplace

Trench Fire

A trench fire is good for general use and is the best fire for cooking in pots and skillets. Place two logs in a parallel position. Place a small stick under the log that is toward the wind to allow a draft on the fire. Then build a small fire between the logs for each cooking utensil to be used. If you want to form a grill over the fire, notch the logs and lay rods from one log to the other. For slower cooking, bring the logs together at one end.

trench fire

Tripod and Spit Cooking

Use a tripod and a spit for cooking fowl, fish, or other types of meat or kabobs. Place two notched sticks on either side of a star or low tepee fire. Make a spit out of green wood. Put the spit through the meat, and place the spit in the notched sticks. Baste the meat often while turning it over the heat. If you place supports under the spit, you can hang a kettle on it for cooking stews.

spit fire

Cooking without Utensils

Many kinds of food can be prepared without utensils by using coals rather than flames. Hardwood coals leave no taste in the food. Softwood coals may leave a slight taste in the food.

Use the following methods to cook bread without utensils:

1. Coals. Prepare a thick cake or biscuit dough. Place the dough in a bed of hardwood coals. Cover with more coals and bake for ten minutes. Brush off the ashes and eat.

2. Stick. Prepare a thick biscuit dough. Remove the bark from the end of a green stick about one inch in diameter. Wrap the dough around the stick. Bake over hot coals, turning constantly to prevent burning.

3. Rock. Use a large flat rock as a reflector oven. Place the rock at an angle about six inches from the flame. Place biscuits on the rock and cook.

Use the following methods to cook meat or fish without utensils:

1. Stick. Cut the meat into small pieces. Push a small green stick through the pieces. Hold the meat over the fire to cook. (Alternate meat with vegetable pieces on the stick for a delicious kabob.)

2. Coals. Prepare a bed of hardwood coals. Place a steak directly on the coals. Be careful that air does not get under the steak; it will burn where the air gets through. When one side is done, turn the steak and cook the other side.

Use the following methods to cook vegetables without utensils:

1. Mud. Vegetables such as potatoes and carrots can be coated with mud and buried in coals to bake. Bake potatoes for thirty to forty minutes. Test the vegetables to see if they are done by poking a stick into them. Remove the mud and eat.

2. Coals. Onions can be buried in hot coals. When they are done, remove the outside layers and eat. Corn can also be roasted in coals. Open the husk and remove the silk. Close the husk and dip the corn in water. Place the corn on coals and cook it for about eight minutes, turning each ear of corn often.

3. Stick. Cut vegetables into small pieces. Push a small green stick through them. Hold them over the fire and cook.

Friendship Activities

Good Words

Set up paper on an easel and provide a marker or pen. Arrange the young women in a semicircle where they can see the easel. Select a young woman to act as scribe. Have her write the name of one of the young women at the top of the paper. Have each person in the circle share with the group one “good word” describing the young woman, such as kind, happy, or friendly. The scribe should write the words on the paper. After each person has responded, give the paper to the young woman. Repeat this with each young woman in the group. This activity can make everyone more aware of the positive things in others, which are characteristics of their divine nature.

Hands

All players stand in a circle, shoulder to shoulder, and place their hands in the center. Each person grabs another person’s hand in each of her hands. Make changes until no one is holding both hands of one person.

The objective of the activity is to untangle the knot without the players letting go of the hands they are holding. The players can try to untangle themselves, or one person can be chosen to direct the process of untangling. When the knot is finally unraveled, players will find themselves in one large circle or in two smaller, interconnected ones. Some people may be facing toward the center of the circle, others away from it.

Identification

Arrange the young women into a circle, and then give each of them a similar object such as an orange or a potato. Tell them that they have fifteen seconds to examine their object and become as well acquainted with it as possible. At the end of the fifteen seconds, ask them to pass the object behind their backs to the next person and then continue to pass objects until directed to stop. Have each person place the object she is holding in the center of the circle. Then ask each young woman to find the object she was originally given.

After all the young women have picked up an object, invite them to sit in a circle on the ground. Invite each of them to explain what characteristics she used to identify her object. Explain that just as the objects are much the same but have unique characteristics, each young woman has characteristics that make her unique and of great worth. Invite the young women to discuss some of these characteristics.

Games

Camp Skills Contest

You can use contests to review and practice skills the girls have been learning at camp, such as fire building, knot tying, and first-aid techniques. Decide which events to include in the contest and how to conduct and judge each event.

Game of Smells

You will need blindfolds for each player and objects found in the outdoors that have distinctive smells, such as fresh pinecones, mint leaves, oranges, lemons, burned wood, bark, leaves, and flowers. You will need a container for each object and a paper and pencil for each participant. Blindfold the participants and have them smell each object. Then put the objects out of sight, remove the blindfolds, and have the participants write down the names of as many objects as they identified. Recognize the participant who identified the most objects correctly.

Game of Sounds

Each participant will need a paper and pencil. This activity may be played by groups or individuals while hiking, sitting around a campfire, or sitting in the dark outdoors. The teams or individuals sit silently for five to ten minutes and write down the sounds they hear during that time. Sounds may include water, rain, frogs, birds, crickets, or wind in the leaves. The individual or team that correctly identifies the most sounds wins.

Keep Your Eyes Peeled

Give each participant a pencil and paper. One participant comes into the group wearing or carrying as many things as possible besides her usual attire. She might wear or carry such things as a compass, binoculars, walking stick, sunglasses, and poncho.

Tell the rest of the group to watch her carefully and note the things that she does. She should use her imagination in doing things to distract them and then go out of sight.

Tell group members to write down all the things that she wore or carried. The person with the longest list wins, and there is a penalty of one point for each incorrect listing.

Rainy Day Games

Rainy days in camp are challenging. One day is not so difficult, but a succession of wet days may dampen spirits and bring homesickness. It is important to be prepared for bad weather. Before you go to camp, outline two or three rainy day programs.

Cross Country

Obtain four or five items for each team. Items should be easily found at camp and somewhat similar for each team, although they could vary in size and shape. Divide the group into teams and choose a captain for each. Have the teams line up in columns with the captains at the front of the lines. Without looking back, the captain of each team passes the first item over her head to the person standing behind her. This person passes it between her legs to the person behind her. The third person passes it over her head, and the next person passes it between her legs. This is repeated until the last person in line receives the item and runs to the front of the line. She puts the first item down, chooses another item, and begins the action again. This continues until the captain is again at the front of the line. The first team to finish wins the game. Items could be passed more than once if necessary.

Indoor Funny Athletic Meet

Divide the group into at least three teams. Choose a captain for each. The captains choose the people who are to enter each race before the race is announced. Points are given to teams as follows: first place—5 points; second place—3 points; third place—1 point.

100-yard Dash. Place marks on the floor showing where to begin and end the race. Have the participants each push a penny across the floor with a toothpick. They cannot flip the penny with the toothpick; the toothpick must always be touching the penny.

220-yard Dash. Give two participants from each team a fifteen-foot strip of paper. One participant holds an end of the paper while the other participant cuts the paper into two lengthwise strips using the smallest scissors available.

880-yard Run. One person feeds another half a glass of water with a small teaspoon.

High Jump. Each person eats a large soda cracker and then whistles.

Javelin Throw. Each person throws a feather, drinking straw, or broomstraw as far as possible.

Low Hurdles. Place a variety of obstacles in a row and allow the participants to walk over them in order to learn where they are.

Blindfold the participants. Then quietly remove the obstacles and ask the participants to walk down the row, avoiding the hurdles.

High Hurdles. Participants walk along a white line or string while looking through the wrong end of binoculars or opera glasses, or they try running backward along the line without stepping off it.

1-mile Relay. Each person peels an apple and feeds it to a partner.

440-yard Race. Hang a clothesline or heavy string, and mark a starting line some distance from the string. Give each participant six paper napkins and six straight pins. The participants must carry one napkin at a time from the starting line and pin it to the string.

Shot Put. Each participant stands on a chair and tries to drop ten peanuts into a jar or ten clothespins into a milk bottle. Another variation is to have participants throw a handkerchief or a balloon as far as possible.

Upside-down Day

Have campers wear unmatched clothing inside out or back to front. Have breakfast for supper and dinner for breakfast. Serve drinks in saucers and food in cups. Eat with odd knives, forks, and spoons. Play games and give prizes to the losers.

High Adventure Activities

High adventure activities can be part of the camp experience, or they can be scheduled at other times. They include activities such as extended hikes, canoeing, sailing, bicycling, cross-country skiing, rappelling, and mountain climbing. They should be carefully planned and adequately supervised. Technical knowledge and skills are essential to safety. Thorough instruction may need to precede high adventure activities.

Physically demanding activities of this kind can help young women develop self-confidence and enjoy a sense of accomplishment while building relationships. The type of activity selected would depend on local circumstances and could include youth of any age.

Hiking

Guidelines for Hiking

The following suggestions can help you have successful hikes and walks:

1. Never leave camp alone. An adequate number of adult leaders who know how to reach the destination safely must be with a hiking group at all times.

2. Leaders should know the trail and should be prepared to show others the interesting places and possible dangers. They should be prepared for the unexpected and ready with an alternate plan.

3. Each person should have a buddy and should stay with her during the entire hike. Establish a calling signal in case someone becomes separated from the group.

4. Wear appropriate clothing. Dress to avoid sunburn. Hats will help to prevent sunstroke, sunburn, and headaches. Wear hiking shoes that are comfortable and will protect your feet.

5. Carry necessary items such as a first-aid kit, food, water, compass, and pocketknife. Carry them in a daypack or backpack, or secure them in a scarf or large handkerchief fastened to your belt. Keep your hands and arms free.

6. Do not eat a heavy meal before beginning a hike. Instead, take dried fruits, fresh vegetables, raisins, or chocolate bars to eat along the trail.

7. Hike no faster than the slowest hiker.

8. Avoid hazards such as loose rocks, dirt slides, cliffs, swamps, and dangerous plants and animals. Stay on established trails where they exist.

9. Respect the property of others. Obey “No Trespassing” signs.

10. Plan hikes away from the highway. However, if you must walk on a traveled highway, stay together, walk single file, keep off the pavement, and face oncoming traffic. Because walking on a highway at night is particularly dangerous, do this only in an emergency and wear white clothing if possible.

11. Plan your hike to include rest periods. Enjoy songs, stories, sketching, or observing objects.

12. If you are overheated when you reach your destination, sip only small amounts of water at a time.

13. If ticks are numerous in your area, take the precautions described on page 41.

14. If electrical storms appear likely, postpone your hike or adapt your plans to avoid the storm danger.

Plan a hike or a walk to accomplish a purpose, such as to help the campers—

1. Appreciate and learn more about the natural world.

2. Develop leadership skills through planning, organizing, and conducting activities on the hike.

3. Have fun and relax.

4. Learn about a specific subject, such as rock formations or conservation of natural resources.

5. Strengthen friendships.

Types of Hikes

Adventure Hike

Divide the participants into groups, and have each group follow a different trail, looking for adventure. On their return, have them tell stories of the exciting adventures they found. Give recognition for the best story. These stories could be combined with songs for a campfire or indoor program.

Bird Walk

Early in the morning, walk to a quiet, secluded spot and just sit, look, and listen. Try to identify as many different birds as you can.

Cooperation Hike

One group of hikers goes on a short hike. They make a map of their hike that includes landmarks and compass readings, and they leave cookies at the end of the trail. Then another group of hikers uses this map to take the same hike and find the cookies. Written notes left along the way could add to the fun. Make sure the cookies are in a container that protects them from animals.

Exploring Hike

Take a hike over new terrain. The hike may be in an area without trails or along back roads, little-used trails, streams or canals, or other unusual routes. Leaders should be familiar with the area. This type of hike often reveals unexpected beauty or interest.

Historical Hike

Hike to some place of historical interest, and plan a program focusing on the historical event or reenacting it.

Nature Hike

Take a hike to learn more about the natural beauty in your camp area. Take along someone who can recognize and talk about common trees, plants, flowers, and rocks. There can be several variations of the nature hike:

1. Label some small cards with letters of the alphabet, and give one card to each camper or group. Ask them to find all the objects in nature they can that begin with the letters on their cards, noting something interesting about each object.

2. As the nature expert identifies each object such as a rock or flower, ask each group to find another object like it.

3. Stop periodically along the trail to mark a circle about three yards in diameter. Give each group five minutes to write down all the interesting things they can find in the circle. Points may be awarded for the most complete list.

4. If the hike is long, plan to have a meal along the trail. After the meal, have a program including songs, stories, and games about nature.

Plan to include a variety of activities in your nature hike, taking care to protect the natural beauty and not leave litter along the trail.

Night Hike

Begin the night hike at dusk. Before leaving, read Moses 2:1–31 and briefly discuss the creation of the earth and the heavens. Have the campers each bring a towel or blanket to sit on and a flashlight. As they walk, ask them to observe the sights and sounds of the night. As it gets darker, leaders should give each person a number and frequently have them count off to ensure that everyone is present. Make sure that the campers stay together and that they move slowly and carefully.

Take a long path to an open area. Have everyone sit down. Help the young women to identify several of the constellations. Provide a quiet time for thinking about the beauties of God’s creations and their testimonies. Invite the campers to share their thoughts after the quiet time. Ask them to write their feelings in their journals after they return to camp.

Rain Hike

Take a hike during or after a rainstorm and observe how rain enhances the beauty of such things as flowers, leaves, or spiderwebs. Smell the rain. Look at the puddles and the sky and notice what animals do in the rain.

Sunrise or Sunset Hike

Hike to a scenic spot and hold a short inspirational service as the sun rises or sets. This may be one of the most memorable events of the camp.

Trial-and-error Hike

This hike would make a good follow-up activity to a nature hike. Lay out the trail in advance and prepare directions for each group. Write the directions so that the groups will have to correctly identify natural objects in order to decide where to go next. For example, if the trail started beside a tree, the directions could read as follows: “If this is a dogwood tree, walk straight ahead about nine paces; but if it is an elm, walk two paces toward a moss-covered stump. Walking in the right direction will bring you near some mushrooms. If they are deadly amanita used to make fly poison, continue walking straight ahead ten paces. If they are morchella, walk fifteen paces to the left.”

Alternatives to Hiking

Local circumstances may not permit hiking. For example, your camp may be held in an area where hiking is not available, or the physical disabilities of young women may not allow them to hike. However, it is important that young women become aware of their surroundings wherever they camp. There is beauty in any environment.

You can plan a city or neighborhood walk to help young women learn about the beauty of their surroundings and their responsibility to protect their environment. Walks could be taken to see historical sites in the area, to observe changes in the neighborhood over the years, and to learn how you can beautify the local area.

Knives

Care

To care for your knife, use the following guidelines:

1. Keep your knife clean, dry, and free from rust.

2. Occasionally apply a few drops of a light machine oil to the knife joints and blade surfaces.

3. Do not use your knife to cut materials that will ruin the cutting edge, such as metal, brick, and similar hard surfaces. Before you start cutting any piece of wood, make sure it is free from nails and similar materials.

4. Do not apply pressure to the broad side of the blade or use the blade to pry. The blade may break.

5. Keep your knife away from fire. Heat will draw the temper from the steel, making the knife soft and difficult to keep sharp.

6. Keep your knife sharp and ready for use.

Sharpening

To sharpen your knife, you will need a whetstone—a special stone with a rough side to sharpen the blade and a fine side to hone it. Sharpen the blade as follows:

1. Start by placing a few drops of a light machine oil on the rough side of the whetstone. The oil makes any loosened metal from the blade float, preventing it from glazing the stone surface.

2. Hold the knife blade flat on the surface of the stone; raise the back of the blade slightly and stroke the full edge of the blade across the stone. Use a slicing motion as if you were cutting a thin slice off the stone. With a little practice, you will develop a smooth circular motion.

3. Turn the blade over and use the same process to sharpen the other side of the blade edge.

4. Continue this process until the blade edge is sharp. Use the fine side of the stone to hone the edge. Test the edge on a dry twig or small branch. If the blade needs only a little sharpening, use only the fine side of the stone.

   whetstone

Safety

Use the following guidelines to make sure you use your knife safely:

1. Do not pass an open pocketknife to another person.

2. Pass a knife in a sheath to another person handle first.

3. Cut away from yourself so that if the blade slips it will not cut you.

4. Never leave your knife on the ground.

5. When you are not using your knife, close it or place it in its sheath. Never leave your knife within the reach of young children.

Knots

To practice the knots described here, use rope rather than twine or string. Where possible, tie each knot in the situation in which you will use it. You can learn to tie all the knots and hitches used in camping if you know the following:

1. Overhand loop: Cross the free end of the rope over the standing part.

2. Underhand loop: Cross the free end of the rope under the standing part.

3. Overhand knot: Make an overhand loop and then bring the free end of the rope through the loop.

knots

1.

2.

3.

Bowline Knot

Use the bowline knot to form a loop that will not slip and is easily untied. This knot is very useful in first aid and lifesaving. For example, you can use it to tie a rope around a person who must be lifted up a cliff or pulled out of the water. The bowline will not become too tight around the person’s chest, and it can be quickly untied once the person has reached safety.

Form an overhand loop in the rope. Bring the other end of the rope around your waist. Bring the free end of the rope up through the overhand loop, behind and around the standing part, and back down through the loop. Tighten the knot by pulling hard on the ends of the rope. When you have done this, practice tying the rope around the waist of another person.

bowline knot

Half Hitch

A half hitch forms a loop that can be pulled tight. Use two half hitches to tie a rope to a pole, ring, or similar object, for example, when you need a clothesline.

Pass the end of the rope from front to back around the pole or other object. Bring the end over and under the standing part and then up through the loop that you just formed. To tie a double half hitch, bring the end around the standing part a second time, and make another half hitch in front of the first one.

double half hitch

Double Half Hitch

Sheet Bend

Use the sheet bend to join two ropes or cords of different thicknesses. This knot will hold without slipping or coming untied and is useful for joining the line and hook when fishing.

Bend the free end of the rope until it is parallel with the standing part. Bring the end of the small rope up through the loop; then pass it back under the entire loop. Bring the end in front of the loop and under itself as shown. Pull on the two ends of both ropes to tighten the knot.

sheet bend knot

Square Knot

Use the square knot to join ropes of equal thicknesses. It is very useful in first aid because it holds firmly but is easy to tie and untie.

Twist the end of the left-hand rope over, under, and over the right-hand rope. Again twist the same end—now on the right—over, under, and over the other rope. Think “Left over right; right over left.”

square knot

Nature

Study the information in this manual along with other material about the natural world in your area. Local libraries and government agencies are good sources for more detailed information.

Animals

When we think of animals, we often think of mammals. A mammal is an animal that is usually four-footed, feeds its young with milk secreted from its body, and has hair covering part or all of its body. Because newborn mammals are dependent on their mothers for food, they learn from their parents, and they tend to develop social relations and communication with others of their kind.

Mammals are warm-blooded. This means that their body temperature stays the same whether the weather is cold or hot. You will probably see several kinds of mammals during your stay. Without disturbing them, see if you can discover what they are eating, how they are suited to their habitat, and how they care for their young.

Be aware of any endangered species in your area. Do not disturb their habitat, and follow any rules you can to help preserve them.

Birds

Many people enjoy bird-watching. Learn to recognize various birds by sight and by their songs and habits. A bird identification book will help you do this. Early mornings and late afternoons are the best times for watching birds because most birds are feeding at these times and are active and singing.

When moving close to birds to observe them, move slowly and quietly. Binoculars can help you see interesting details. Notice how the bird’s size, coloring, and movements help it adapt to its environment. You may want to record in a notebook the names of the birds you identify at camp, where you saw them, and what they were doing as you observed them.

Clouds

Clouds are made up of water droplets that have condensed from water vapor in the air. There are many kinds of clouds. If you learn something about cloud formations, you will be better able to understand weather conditions while you are camping.

Cumulus clouds are fluffy, white clouds. They are usually seen on beautiful sunny days and generally indicate continued fair weather.

Cirrus clouds are thin, feathery, white clouds with blue sky showing in between them. They usually indicate rain or snow within the next few days. They form at a higher altitude than any other clouds.

Cirrocumulus clouds are small, fluffy clouds that are usually arranged in groups or lines. They also indicate coming rain or snow.

Stratus clouds are thin, low, grayish-white clouds. They cover the whole sky and usually bring fine rain.

Nimbus clouds are the clouds seen on rainy or snowy days. They are thick and dark gray and usually cover the sky. Smaller ragged pieces blown along at a lower level are called “scud.”

Cumulonimbus clouds are thunderhead clouds. They are usually flat at the bottom, and they look tall and towering. They become dark gray and nearly always bring thundershowers. In Latin, cumulus means a “heap” and nimbus means “rain,” so cumulonimbus literally means “raining heap”!

Tornadoes are funnel-shaped clouds of strong, whirling winds. They are dangerous and often destructive. Three-fourths of the world’s tornadoes occur in the United States.

Fish and Shore Life

Fish live in freshwater and saltwater, but they cannot live in water that is polluted or alkaline. Fish are able to live in water by absorbing oxygen through membranes in their gills. There are over 30,000 varieties of fish.

Most species of fish have five senses. They can feel, taste, see, hear, and smell. They also have a lateral line on their sides that serves as a sixth sense. Through a system of pores and nerves along this line, they sense changes and vibrations in water. Even though fish may not see you as you walk on the bank or move an oar in the water, they can sense the vibration and will dart away. Observe where fish live, how their coloration serves them, and how their mouths and teeth allow them to eat different kinds of food.

Ponds, lakes, streams, and ocean beaches provide a great variety of fish, animal, and plant life to observe. Learn about how the living things in the water depend on each other.

Insects

Without insects, we would not be able to live. For example, insects distribute pollen from one flower to another. Approximately 15,000 varieties of domestic and wild plants throughout the world depend on bees for pollination. Without bees, most of these plants would die.

Insects have three pairs of legs and three main divisions to the body. They have a head, which carries the antennae or feelers and the mouth parts; a thorax, which has the wings and legs attached; and an abdomen. Spiders, mites, ticks, and scorpions are classified as arachnids and are not insects. They have four pairs of legs, two main body divisions, and no antennae.

Insects are classified into twenty-five or more orders, which include beetles, butterflies, ants, bugs, flies, and grasshoppers. They are the largest group of living things in the world. There are over 110,000 kinds of moths and butterflies alone. From the tiniest to the largest, each insect is equipped in special ways to play its role in nature.

Observe the various types of insects in your location. Try to determine what the insects are doing and how they fit into the natural environment.

Plants and Flowers

Plants and flowers beautify the world around us and provide many things that we use in our daily lives. Medicines, dyes, ornaments, furniture, clothing, flour, oils, herbs, spices, vanilla, yeast, and many more items come from flowers and plants. Many plants are edible. Learn to identify the ones in your area that can be eaten.

There are numerous varieties of wildflowers throughout the world, but many are becoming extinct because of people’s carelessness. Learn about the wildflowers in your area and determine what you can do to preserve them in their natural setting.

Some poisonous plants may also be in your area. Learn how to identify them and what to do if someone comes into contact with them. You should know poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac by sight. Although each of these plants has its own characteristics, the following verse provides a good guideline: “Leaflets three? Let it be. Berries white? Take flight!”

Every part of these poisonous plants contains poison—from roots to leaves and fruit. The poison is long-lasting and still active even after the plant has died, so do not touch dry leaves or dead plants. Gloves, shoes, or other clothes that have touched the plants can carry the poison for months. Because the poison vaporizes when the plants are burned, you could get a severe case of poisoning just by inhaling fumes from a fire built with these plants. Be sure that you can recognize each of these plants so you can avoid any contact with them. (For first-aid information, see p. 42.)

Poison Ivy. Poison ivy grows in many countries as trailing vines or shrubs or as erect woody plants. The stems of the vine look like a fuzzy rope. Poison ivy leaves always grow in groups of three. The leaf edges are smooth or notched. The leaves are green in spring and summer, but they change in early fall to scarlet, orange, and russet.

The flowers of poison ivy are small and white and grow in clusters. The fruit is usually waxlike, although it may have a downy look. It looks very much like a tiny peeled orange.

poison ivy

Poison Ivy

Poison Oak. Poison oak grows throughout the world in warm climates. It usually grows as an upright shrub with woody stems growing from the ground, but it can grow in an open field in large spreading clusters. In a forest, it grows like a vine, sometimes as high as twenty-five or thirty feet.

The leaves always grow in groups of three. The center leaf is similar on both sides and definitely looks like an oak leaf. The side leaves often have irregular shapes with smooth or uneven edges and are always leatherlike and glossy.

The flowers are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, greenish white, and similar to those of common poison ivy. The fruit is creamy or greenish white and about the size of a small currant. It resembles a peeled orange, with segments clearly defined by lines.

poison oak

Poison Oak

Poison Sumac. Poison sumac grows in damp areas where the climate is warm and humid. It grows as a small tree or coarse woody shrub, never as a vine. The leaves grow in pairs along a central rib with a single leaf on the end. There may be from seven to thirteen leaves on each rib. The leaves are smooth and velvety. They are bright orange in the spring, dark green with scarlet ribs in the summer, and red-orange and russet in the early fall.

Yellowish green flowers hang in long clusters from the stems. The fruit of poison sumac is similar to that of other poisonous plants—ivory white or green. It hangs in loose clusters ten to twelve inches long.

Nonpoisonous sumac looks very similar to poisonous sumac, but it has red fruit and seed clusters at the ends of the branches. Remember, if the fruit is red, you are safe!

poisen sumac

Poison Sumac

Rocks

Have you ever played with the sand at the beach or at a stream’s edge? Have you seen pictures of lava flowing from a volcano? Have you admired a lovely stone in a necklace or ring? All around us, nature provides a wonderful display of rocks and minerals of many kinds, shapes, and colors. Rocks may be as large as a mountain or as tiny as a grain of sand; they may be liquid like lava; or they may be polished and shaped by man or nature and worn as jewelry.

The earth is composed of three major kinds of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous (meaning fiery) rocks are produced as a result of intense heat, for example, lava rock from a volcano. Basalt and granite are also igneous rocks.

Sedimentary rocks are formed by weathering and pressure. Wind, waves, ice, currents of water, and gravity gradually wear away mountains and land, carrying tiny particles to the sea. These particles sink to form thick sediments, which under great pressure change into rock. Sedimentary rock forms two-thirds of the earth’s crust and includes coal, sandstone, and limestone. Movements in the earth may lift and fold the rock. Fossils are found in sedimentary rock.

Metamorphic rocks were originally sedimentary or igneous but were changed to become more compact and crystalline. These changes can be caused by pressure, heat, or the action of water and chemicals. Examples of metamorphic rock are limestone that has changed to marble and coal that has changed to diamond.

Interesting rocks are all around us. Notice color, sheen, shape, hardness, crystalline structure, or markings. While you are camping and hiking, try to identify some of the rocks you see.

Stars

Man has studied the stars since ancient times. Stars give light, show the passage of time, and direct us at night.

When you are away from city lights and look up into the sky, you will see thousands of stars. Ancient people who observed the sky grouped stars into pictures or patterns called constellations. They gave the constellations names that are still used today. The two constellations most frequently used to determine location or direction are the Big Dipper in the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Cross in the Southern Hemisphere. Using a chart of the constellations in your hemisphere, locate some of the prominent star groups in the night sky.

You should be able to locate the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. With the help of binoculars or a small telescope, you may be able to see the craters of our moon, a nebula, or even Saturn’s rings.

Trees

Trees are among the oldest living things. Many oaks and elms have lived for 300 years. Some pines and junipers have lived for 500 years, and some cypresses and redwoods have lived for 3,000 years or more. There are many kinds of beautiful trees on the earth. Over 1,000 species are found in the palm family alone.

Two general categories of trees are conifers and deciduous trees. Most conifers are evergreens. They are often referred to as softwoods because their wood is easy to cut or shape. Campfires built from softwood burn quickly.

Most deciduous trees have branches that give them a rounded shape, and their leaves fall to the ground each year. The wood from these trees is called hardwood and is often used for building furniture or buildings. Campfires built from hardwood burn slowly and have long-lasting coals.

Trees are vital to a healthy environment. They add oxygen to the air. The great forests of the earth help to purify our air and provide the oxygen necessary to support life.

Learn more about the trees in your area. You may want to plant a tree and watch it grow. Discover why the leaves of deciduous trees turn different colors in the fall and drop from their branches. You may want to learn about the parts of a tree and about how a tree uses the energy from light to grow.

Nature Awareness Activities

Microhike

The purpose of a microhike is to help the participants notice small things in nature that they may normally overlook. You will need string for each person who will participate. Follow these instructions:

1. Hike to a predetermined site.

2. Have each person pick a small area on the grass or soil or on a tree, a rock, or other object.

3. Encourage each person to get on her hands and knees in the area she has chosen. Have her look for small objects that she usually would not notice, such as oddly shaped pebbles, a wing from an insect, a hole in a leaf, or a bit of fungus. Have her mark each object with a stick, wrap the string around the stick, and continue on, leaving a trail of string from object to object.

4. When the young women have completed their observations, ask them to follow someone else’s trail and note what she marked, or have each person lead the group on her microhike.

Nature Circle

Have the young women sit in a circle. One player starts the action by saying, “From where I sit, I can see a robin” (or any other natural object she sees). The second player responds, “From where I sit, I can see a robin and a pine tree.” Each player must repeat the previously named objects and add a new one. At any point a player may be challenged by any of the other players to actually point out the objects. If the player cannot do this or cannot name all of the previous objects, she goes to the end of the circle, and the action starts again.

Nature Photography

Explain to the group that they are going to learn to look at the beautiful things around them in a new way. Ask each person to find a partner. One person in the partnership will pretend to be the photographer, and the other will pretend to be the camera. The person taking the part of the camera closes her eyes, and the photographer carefully leads her to something beautiful and places her in front of it. The photographer may suggest that the picture is to be seen close up, as a panoramic view, or through a telephoto lens. To take the picture, she taps the camera on the shoulder to open the lens (the camera should open her eyes for about four seconds), then taps again to close the lens (the camera closes her eyes). The camera must remember what she saw.

After taking a few imaginary pictures, the camera and photographer trade roles and take additional pictures. Allow fifteen to twenty minutes for the total picture taking.

You may conclude this activity in several different ways:

1. Have the young women share their most beautiful photographs with the group. They should tell what they saw when they were the camera and why they were impressed with the picture.

2. Have each young woman draw a picture of her favorite photograph and give it to her partner, explaining why she chose it. Or each young woman could describe her favorite photograph to her partner and share her feelings about it.

3. A nature topic could be assigned to each partnership beforehand, such as wildflowers, clouds, trees, edible plants, birds, seashells, or shore life. The young women could sketch the photographs they take and write a brief description of each one. They could then share their sketches with the group. Or they could just talk about their photographs.

Nature Activity with Scriptures

Select scriptures relating to nature or scriptures that will help the young women think about Heavenly Father and the Savior. Write out each scripture on a small card if the young women do not have their scriptures with them. If they do have scriptures, just write each reference on a slip of paper. Each scripture card or slip of paper should also have an instruction or question that will help to guide the young woman’s thoughts as she reads the scripture.

Explain to the young women that they are going to have an experience with the scriptures in nature. Ask each young woman to choose a card and not discuss it with anyone else. She should find a quiet place close by where she can be alone and reflect on the scripture she has chosen.

After ten or fifteen minutes, call the young women together and ask them to sit in a circle while each shares her scripture and her thoughts or insights about it.

Some scriptures that could be used in this activity are Psalm 19:1; Isaiah 40:31; Matthew 14:23; Philippians 4:13; Alma 30:44; Alma 32:41; D&C 76:22–24; D&C 88:63; D&C 104:13–14; Moses 3:5; Abraham 3:21. For other scriptures, look in the Topical Guide of the LDS edition of the King James Bible under subjects such as “Astronomy,” “Creation, Create,” and “Nature, Earth.”

Be sure to write a question or instruction with each scripture. For example, for Doctrine and Covenants 88:63, you could write: “Think of times when you have felt close to your Heavenly Father. What are some things you can do to stay close to him and feel his love for you?”

Nature Scavenger Hunt

Go on a nature scavenger hunt. Mark off an area of ground about a yard square for each young woman or group. Ask the individuals or groups to find things such as the following in the marked off area: a sign of man, a sign of an animal, a plant you can identify, a sign of an insect, and a sign of a bird. Depending on the terrain, you may want to expand this hunt to a larger area. Also try limiting the search to a specific category such as mammal signs (nibbled cones, bits of hair or fur, a burrow, clawed tree bark, stored seeds, tracks); bird signs (nests, eggshells, feathers, tracks, holes in a tree); or insect signs (eggs on plants, holes in leaves).

Orienteering

Note: Because of differences in compass readings throughout the world, the following information may need to be adapted for your area. Check local resources.

Orienteering is finding your way in an unfamiliar area by using a compass and maps. This section will give you basic information about using compasses and maps.

Compass

A compass consists of a strip of magnetized steel, called a needle, that is balanced on a pivot and left free to swing in any direction. The needle is placed in a circular case called the compass housing, which is marked with 360 degrees. When the needle is left to itself, it eventually comes to rest pointing to magnetic north. The end of the needle that points north is clearly marked. It may be painted black or red, stamped with the letter N, or shaped like an arrowhead.

Reading a Compass

A compass, like a circle, is divided into 360 degrees. The face of a compass is like the face of a clock, with each minute on the clock representing six degrees on the compass. If twelve o’clock represents north, then east would be at three o’clock (or 90 degrees), south would be at six o’clock (or 180 degrees), and west would be at nine o’clock (or 270 degrees). These are four of the eight principal points of the compass.

The remaining four points—northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest—are found halfway between the directions that give them their names. For example, northeast is located halfway between north (0 degrees) and east (90 degrees), at 45 degrees. For practice, determine the degree readings for southeast, southwest, and northwest.

Setting a Compass

Each time you use a compass, set it as follows:

1. Place the compass on a level spot or hold it very still, waist high and level, until the needle stops moving.

2. Rotate the compass housing until the needle points to N on the compass.

3. With the needle pointing directly north, you are ready to take a compass bearing.

Taking a Compass Bearing

To take a compass bearing, do the following:

1. Face the landmark or object whose bearing you want to know. Then set the compass as explained above.

2. When the needle of the compass is pointing north, place a pointer such as a toothpick, pencil, or straw over the center pivot of the compass and point it at the landmark or object.

3. The number under the pointer is the compass bearing.

Compass Exercise

Remember that the point of the compass needle must point to N before each bearing is taken so that the bearing is as exact as possible.

Test yourself by trying the following:

1. Place a marker on the ground where you are standing. Set your compass at a bearing less than 120 degrees from the marker—96 degrees, for example. (Your first bearing must be less than 120 degrees so that the total of the three bearings you are to take will be less than the 360 degrees of the compass.)

2. Walk fifty steps along this bearing and stop. Add 120 degrees to your original 96 degrees and reset the compass at this new bearing (216 degrees).

3. Walk fifty steps along this new bearing and stop. Again add 120 degrees to your bearing, this time totaling 336 degrees.

4. Reset the compass to 336 degrees and walk in that direction for fifty steps.

5. Stop. The marker should be at your feet.

Whenever you work with a compass, always write down the bearing you are following and either the number of steps (if traveling a short distance) or the time in minutes traveled in that direction. Every time your direction changes, you must take a new bearing and write it down.

Following a Course

You will probably not be able to walk to your goal following your bearing exactly. It is better to establish your bearing; pick out a certain landmark, such as a tall tree, cliff, or hill along your bearing; and walk to that point. When you reach the spot, pick out another landmark along your bearing and walk to it.

Occasionally you will come to lakes, swamps, or deep canyons that will force you to change your course. If you must go quite a distance from your original bearing, you may have to take a new bearing.

With practice, you will soon develop a feeling of accomplishment and security in being able to travel by using a compass.

Maps

Your camping and hiking equipment should include a map of your camping area. The more detail your map contains, the better it is. Many maps are not detailed enough for campers and hikers. The best maps for campers and hikers are topographical, aeronautical, and geological survey maps.

Note the date when the map was issued. It may not include manmade features built after the map was drawn. Note also the scale of the map. On the most frequently used geological survey maps, one inch of measure is equal to one mile of actual terrain.

Even when you know the scale used on the map, estimating distances is often difficult since roads, rivers, and trails do not follow a straight line. You may wish to purchase a map-measuring device, which automatically measures mileage when you run it over your proposed route on the map.

Declination is the difference in direction between true north and magnetic north. You will need to consider this when charting a route in an area where there are no established trails. Each map has a V-shaped declination symbol. One arm points to the map’s true north and the other arm to magnetic north. Some maps will show the difference in degrees between the two for your area. For further information, check with local resources.

declination symbol

15Ε

267 MILS

Declination Symbol

Problem-solving Activities

Blind Walk

This activity is designed to help the young women listen carefully in the outdoors.

Things needed:

1. Two adult leaders

2. A length of string about forty feet long

3. A blindfold or bandanna for each young woman. (You might consider having each young woman bring one.)

Instructions:

1. Explain to the young women that they are about to go on a blind walk. Don’t give them any details about it.

2. Have them put on their blindfolds, and place them on their honor not to peek. The leaders should not be blindfolded. Tell the young women that they cannot talk, whisper, or make any noise. If a person’s blindfold starts to slip, she should raise her hand and you will fix it for her.

3. Have the young women form a line and each take hold of the length of string, which should be stretched from one person to the next. They should be separated from each other by about four feet so that they can walk easily.

4. Take hold of one end of the string and lead the young women around in a smooth area until they feel confident with your leadership.

5. Take the string away from them. Tell them that you will make a rhythmic sound by striking two sticks or rocks together. This sound should be soft but clear enough for each person to hear. The young women should listen carefully and follow the sound. Lead them around the area by making the sound. Watch to make sure that no one gets into a dangerous situation.

6. After they have gained confidence in following the quiet sound, another leader about twenty feet away should make a loud noise of some kind. The first leader should continue making the quiet sound. The second leader should pause a few seconds so that the quiet sound can be heard and then repeat the loud noise again. A few young women will probably follow the louder noise.

7. The second leader should lead the ones who follow her over rougher ground, perhaps letting them bump into a bush. She should then take them by the hand and lead them back to the other group.

8. The quiet sound should continue. After a few minutes, repeat step 6 to see if any young women can be led astray. If so, repeat step 7. Continue doing this until none of them will follow the loud noise.

9. Have the young women take off the blindfolds and sit on the ground in a circle. Talk about the experience. You may want to liken it to listening to the still, small voice of the Holy Ghost. You could ask the young women to express what they thought about and learned during the experience.

Human Ladder

Things needed: A wall, rock, or other object about fifteen feet high

Instructions:

1. Emphasize that the young women must be careful throughout this activity so that no one gets hurt.

2. Divide the group into teams of about four members each.

3. Explain that the objective of the activity is for each group to get all four of their members over the obstacle. No ropes, logs, or other objects may be used to help people get over. The groups can try together, or each group can try separately, depending on the circumstances.

4. You can make the activity more challenging by establishing a time limit for the activity or by not allowing verbal communication.

5. After the activity is over, discuss questions such as the following: What things in life can you compare to the wall? What things in life can you compare to the rules of the activity? What did you learn about working with others?

Mine Field

Things needed:

1. A large open area

2. One brick or rock for each young woman, plus one extra for each team

Instructions:

1. Mark a starting line and finish line on the open area.

2. Divide the group into teams and have each team line up at the starting line.

3. Give the teams one brick for each team member plus one extra brick per team. Explain that each team member should stand on a brick. They should pass the extra brick to the front team member, who should place it on the ground in front of her. The entire team should move forward one brick and then repeat the process. The team members cannot step on the ground; they must step only on the bricks.

4. Have the teams race to the finish line.

5. After the activity is over, the group could discuss what they learned that will help them in working with groups.

One Rope River Cross

Things needed:

1. One fifty-foot cotton rope that is one inch in diameter

2. A small stream, river, or pond

3. Two trees opposite each other on the sides of the stream, river, or pond. The trees should be living and should be at least ten inches in diameter.

Instructions:

1. Emphasize that the young women must be careful throughout this activity so that no one gets hurt.

2. Assign two people to be spotters to watch for dangerous situations.

3. Using two half hitches, tie one end of the rope to one of the trees about eight feet above the water. Stretch the rope across the water and tie it to the other tree. Be sure that the rope is level and tight. You may have to retighten it during the activity.

4. Have the young women cross the water on the rope one at a time.

5. After the activity is over, discuss the following questions: How did you feel when you were crossing on the rope? How is this like other experiences you have had in life? How can you use what you learned from this experience in your life?

Team Tag

Instructions:

1. Divide the group into teams of about eight members each.

2. Have each team form a line. Each team member should put her hands on the shoulders of the person in front of her. The first person in line is the leader of the team.

3. On a given signal, the leader of each team tries to touch someone on another team other than the leader. Any person who is tagged must join the team that tagged her. Team members must move behind their leader wherever she goes.

4. After five minutes of play, count the members of each team. The team with the most members wins.

The Tower of Babel

Instructions:

1. Divide the group into teams of about four members each.

2. Challenge each team to build a tower using only the materials available in a 100-yard radius around them. The team with the tallest tower wins.

3. Give the teams two minutes to plan and five minutes to build their towers.

4. After the activity is over, discuss questions such as the following: What problems did you have in building the tower? If you were to build it again, what would you do differently? How will what you learned in this activity help you in your life?

Two-person Obstacle Course

Things needed:

1. Several pieces of rope five feet long

2. An area where an obstacle course can be set up

3. A watch

Instructions:

1. Set up an obstacle course with obstacles to go around, over, under, and across.

2. Divide the group into teams of two members each. Tie the left leg of one team member to the right leg of the other team member.

3. Let each team run the obstacle course. The team that completes it in the shortest time wins.

4. You can vary the rules to make the activity more challenging: blindfold one or both team members; allow no verbal communication; tie legs together so that one team member is going forward and one is going backward.

5. After the activity is over, discuss questions such as the following: What were your feelings during the activity? How did you feel toward your teammate? What did you learn that will help you in your life?

Safety

Campsite Safety

Do the following things to help you be safe in your campsite:

1. Do not camp on high, windy ridges. Do not camp in a ravine or dry creek bed that might become flooded in a rainstorm.

2. Camp away from large trees standing alone that could be hit by lightning. A grove that gives wind protection is preferable.

3. Camp away from the water’s edge to avoid polluting the waters and to avoid rapidly rising water, high tide, or wind-driven waves.

4. Camp away from anthills and poisonous plants.

5. Camp away from unstable hillsides or dirt slide areas.

6. Camp away from low ground or swampy areas to avoid mosquitoes and protect camping gear from dampness.

7. If there are natural hazards such as cliffs, swamps, mine shafts, or dead trees, place them off-limits.

8. Stress safety on hikes and other activities outside of camp.

9. Check with local authorities to see if permits are required to build fires. Follow all fire regulations.

10. Remember that a stove leaves no trace. Use a campfire infrequently and only when there is abundant dead wood on the ground.

11. Do not allow flammable rubbish to accumulate.

12. Never use kerosene or other flammable substances to light a fire. Adults must supervise the use of gasoline and chemical fuels for cooking, heating, lighting, or operation of cars or motors. Keep these fuels in clearly marked containers and store them in an unoccupied area away from program and sleeping areas.

13. Extinguish all outdoor fires before leaving them. If fire hoses and extinguishers are in camp, keep them in good repair. Make sure that the water supply and pressure are adequate.

14. Do not pour water on flaming grease. Throw salt or baking soda on the flame, or cover it with a metal lid.

15. Be extremely careful when using lanterns in sleeping quarters because of danger of fire and carbon monoxide poisoning. The use of flashlights is preferred.

16. If space heaters, charcoal burners, or similar devices are used in tents or buildings, adequate ventilation must be provided to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning. Adults should supervise the use of these devices.

Plans for Disasters

Check with local authorities and become familiar with the actions to be taken in case of natural disasters common to your area such as earthquakes, fires, floods, hurricanes, or tornadoes. Make plans ahead of time for dealing with such emergencies. Plan escape routes from buildings or the campsite. Determine a central location in which campers can meet in case of an emergency. Establish the responsibilities of leaders in an emergency, and determine a way to account for all campers.

In case of electrical storms, take the following precautions:

1. Seek shelter in a dense wood, grove of trees (avoid isolated tall trees), cave, depression in the ground, deep valley or canyon, or the foot of a steep cliff. Avoid areas that may be dangerous during a flash flood.

2. Sit or lie down, especially if you are on a ridge or high place.

3. Get under a steel bridge, but do not touch the steel or sit on damp ground.

4. Get in an automobile, one of the safest places you can be during an electrical storm.

5. If you have a choice of buildings for shelter, choose in this order:

   • Large metal or metal-frame buildings. (Don’t allow body contact with walls or metal parts.)

   • Buildings with lightning protection.

   • Large unprotected buildings.

   • Small unprotected buildings.

6. Avoid tops of ridges, ledges, outcroppings of rocks, sheds, and exposed locations.

7. Keep away from wire fences, telephone lines, and metal tools.

8. Keep away from horses and other animals.

9. If you are swimming or boating, get to land as soon as possible.

Sanitation

Use the following guidelines to help keep your camp sanitary:

1. Have a plan for controlling insects, rodents, and poisonous plants. Avoid camping near breeding places of pests, such as stagnant pools, marshes, neglected latrines or shelters, and dumps.

2. Provide water, a basin, soap, and towels for hand washing in the eating area, near latrines, and near each tent. Build a small drain or place gravel under the area to prevent muddy ground.

3. Dispose of all camp trash each day in one of three ways: burn it, bury it, or remove it. Sometimes all three ways are necessary. In some areas, regulations forbid burying camp refuse and garbage. Be sure to follow the regulations in your area. Recycle as many items as possible.

4. Keep the area around garbage cans clean and dry. Use racks or some other base to keep the cans off the ground. Garbage to be carried out of camp should be put in proper containers. Waste food should not be strewn on the ground.

5. Clean outdoor toilets every day.

6. In a remote, uninhabited area, when local regulations permit, you may need to build trench latrines. They should be away from the immediate camping area on the same level with or lower than any nearby water supply. They should be at least 200 feet away from the water supply.

   Dig trenches approximately 2 feet deep, 1 foot wide, and 4 feet long or long enough to accommodate the campers. (If possible, one toilet seat should be available for every ten campers.) Soil removed while digging should be placed beside the trench to be shoveled in after each use. Leave a small shovel in the dirt for this purpose. Old sheets or canvas can be used to drape the area for privacy. Make provisions for washing hands.

   The trenches must always be kept sanitary. Powdered lime is one of the best disinfectants for latrines. Cover the trench latrine completely when refuse and soil are within a foot of the top. Be sure to mark the covered latrine so that future campers will choose another spot.

7. While you are hiking or away from the latrines, follow simple procedures for burying human waste. Make sure you are 200 feet away from any water supply or camp area. Use your heel or a stick to dig a shallow hole. After using it, refill the hole and recover the area with natural ground cover.

Service

Serving others should be a part of everything that is done at camp, not just a one-time experience. During camp, young women should learn to give service such as kind acts, sincere compliments, encouragement, and sharing of talents. The certification requirements encourage service, as do many of the activities in this “Resources” section.

Survival

Determining Directions without a Compass

Even if you do not have a compass, you can use the sun and stars to determine directions and chart a course.

North Star

In the Northern Hemisphere, you can orient yourself by using the North Star. It is never more than one degree away from true north. Find the Big Dipper, and imagine a line between the two stars that form the front of the pouring edge. Extend this line about five times the distance between the two stars to locate the North Star.

north star

Southern Cross

In the Southern Hemisphere, you can orient yourself by using the Southern Cross and the two pointer stars to the left of it. Draw an imaginary line through the two stars that form the axis of the cross. Then draw an imaginary line perpendicular to the line that would join the two pointer stars. If you look at the place where these two imaginary lines would intersect, you will be looking south.

south pole

Sun

To find directions using the sun, drive a stick that is three feet long or longer into the ground. Mark the end of the shadow, wait ten to fifteen minutes, and then mark the end of the shadow again. Draw a straight line between the two marks. This line always runs east and west; the second mark made is always toward the east. A line at right angles to the one you drew runs north and south. This method works at any time of the day as long as there is enough sunlight to cast a shadow. If you cannot find a long stick or if the ground is too hard to drive a stick into, use the shadow of a bush, tree, or any object at least three feet tall.

sun shadow

Moon

The moon comes up in the east and goes down in the west, just like the sun. The stick and shadow method described for use with the sun will work when the moon is bright enough to cast a shadow.

What to Do When Lost

Confusion, disorientation, and panic are natural reactions to being lost, but your safety and even your life may depend on not giving in to them. Think before you act. Use these guidelines:

• Don’t panic. Pray to obtain peace of mind.

• Orient yourself if possible. Use a map to determine direction and familiar landmarks.

• Stay in one place. The possibility of being found is greater if you do.

• Survey the area for a good campsite. Build a small camp.

• Signal for help.

The job of rescuers will be easier if you use a distress signal to attract their attention. To catch a rescuer’s eye, a signal must somehow disturb the usual appearance or sound of an area. Try the following:

• Hang a brightly colored flag, sleeping bag, or blanket on a tree.

• Use the universal distress signal, which is any kind of signal repeated three times: three shouts, three blasts of a whistle, three gunshots, three columns of smoke.

• Sweep the horizon with a mirror or the lid of a can. An airplane pilot may see the flash of reflected sunlight even if the day is hazy.

• If you can see someone in the distance, send the SOS distress call in Morse code—three short signals, three long signals, three short signals. Send the code with a flag, shirt on a pole, flashlight, lantern, mirror, bugle, whistle, or two-way radio.

• A large SOS tramped out in sand or snow may be seen by searchers higher on the mountain or in the air.

• Mountain climbers signal that they are in distress by raising both arms and crossing them. Both arms raised straight will signal that you are OK.

sos

Emergency Shelters

If you do not have a tent, a tarp or heavy piece of waterproof material can serve as a shelter. The following shelters work well in emergency situations:

A-frame Tent

To make an A-frame tent, fold the tarp or plastic in half lengthwise, and place the fold over a pole or a rope stretched between two trees. Anchor the tarp to the ground with rocks.

A-frame

Lean-to

To make a lean-to, tie a tarp to a pole that has been lashed to two upright sticks or poles. Use ropes and pegs to hold the uprights in place. Anchor the tarp to the ground with rocks.

lean-to

You can also make a lean-to by tying two corners of a tarp to the branches of two trees. Use pegs or rocks to anchor the other side of the tarp to the ground.

If no tarp is available for the lean-to, branches or palm fronds could be tied to the pole or trees.

shelter

Other Shelters

A snow cave with a waterproof lining or an outcropping of rock lined with fallen leaves and branches could also be used as emergency shelters.

Tents

Tents are the best type of wilderness shelters. Check with local sporting goods stores for tents that are suited to your area. The type of tent you need will depend on the number of people and amount of gear that need to fit in it, the climate, and the type of camp. Tents for backpacking must be lighter and smaller than tents for long-term camping.

Testimony-building Experiences

Scripture Reading

Each adult and youth camper should bring her scriptures to camp or have copies available to her. Plan for a quiet time each day when those at camp can read and ponder the scriptures individually or in small groups. Scripture reading is one of the certification requirements for each young woman each year.

Take time to ponder the words of the scripture found in Doctrine and Covenants 128:23 and other scriptures related to the natural world.

Young Women Values at Camp

The purposes of the Young Women program are to help each young woman grow spiritually and live the gospel principles expressed in the Young Women Values. All Young Women activities and events, including camp, should help to achieve these purposes.

As you spend time at camp, you will have many opportunities to incorporate the Young Women Values into your life and help others do the same. You may want to plan ways to draw attention to a particular Value during a devotional, sharing time, scripture reading time, or campfire program. You may create a camp activity around the Values, such as a special hike with stations along the way where young women or leaders share a story, scripture, or song connected with a Value. The Value colors may also be used to identify camp groups or may be displayed at campfire or evening programs. Observe Value colors in nature.

When appropriate, share your experiences and testimony about the gospel principles expressed in the Young Women Values, Motto, and Theme. As you participate in the camp activities, you can help others recognize how what they are doing, seeing, and feeling helps them understand principles of the gospel. Camp can be a window to new understanding of the gospel and increased love for our Heavenly Father.

Testimony Meetings

Testimony meetings may be held by a ward or stake anytime during camp, but they are most effective near the end of the camp after young women and leaders have spent time together. They provide an opportunity for young women to bear their testimonies about the gospel of Jesus Christ as prompted by the Holy Ghost.

Devotionals

Brief devotionals may be held in connection with a flag ceremony, at morning or evening prayers, or at any other time. They could include an inspirational thought, a scripture, and a song. Devotionals may be held for the whole camp or in smaller groups of young women and their leaders.

Water Safety

Water sports should be conducted in a safe area, and discipline should be maintained at all times. Activities must be well organized and supervised. Realistic safety rules should be made and explained to all campers. The following guidelines will help you maintain safety during water sports:

1. An adult trained in water safety should be present and in charge during any water activity.

2. Consult the Parental or Guardian Permission and Medical Release form (see p. 89) to determine which young women have physical conditions that would limit their participation in water activities.

3. Become familiar with the depth of the water and any possible hazards. Plan activities that are safe.

4. Make sure that all participants in water activities use the buddy system. This means that they are assigned to someone of equal swimming ability to swim near and check with.

5. Make sure that all young women can be easily observed during their activities. One or more lifeguards should be on duty, and a lifeline should be available on shore. (See “Drowning,” p. 45.)

6. Post the safety rules for swimming and boating at waterfront areas.

Water Supply

An abundant supply of uncontaminated water is necessary for the health and comfort of every camper (see “Food and Nutrition,” p. 47). Plan carefully so there will be adequate water for drinking, cooking, and cleaning at camp. If the camp has a water system, check to make sure that the water is pure. In more primitive camps, campers must often purify the water that is available.

Disposal

Make sure that you properly dispose of waste water. Waste water from cooking or dishwashing should be disposed of according to the regulations of the campground. If no drains are provided, remove any food particles from the waste water and put them with the garbage. Then dispose of the water at least 200 feet from any water supply by sprinkling it on the ground over a wide area.

Avoid contaminating the water supply when bathing or washing clothes. It is recommended that these activities take place at least 200 feet from the water supply.

Water Purification

If you must use streams and lakes as water sources, be sure to purify the water before drinking it or using it in food preparation. One of the most serious diseases caused by contaminated water is giardiasis, brought on by the microorganism Giardia lamblia. Symptoms of the disease include nausea, abdominal cramps, lethargy, diarrhea, and weight loss. The symptoms do not develop until six to fifteen days after you drink the contaminated water. The disease is often transmitted through the feces of infected animals that contaminate water sources.

Use the following methods to purify water:

Chlorine Bleach

Water can be purified quickly and cheaply by adding chlorine bleach to it. To purify a liter of water, do the following:

1. Get a large, clean container, and label it “Drinking Water.”

2. Fill it with one liter of water. Add four drops of chlorine bleach. Bleach used for this purpose should contain 4 to 6 percent sodium hypochlorite. If you can only get bleach with 1 percent sodium hypochlorite, you must add twenty drops of bleach to a liter of water.

3. Cover the container with a clean lid or cloth. Let the water stand for thirty minutes.

4. Taste the water and notice the faint chlorine taste. If there is no chlorine taste, add two more drops of bleach. If the chlorine taste is too strong, pour the water back and forth from one clean container to another to improve the flavor.

Boiling

Water can also be purified by boiling it. Bring the water to a rolling boil, and let it continue to boil for three to seven minutes.

Iodine

You may be able to purchase iodine tablets or other chemical purifiers to purify small amounts of water for use while hiking or backpacking. Follow the instructions on the label carefully, and make sure that the tablets are not outdated.

Filters

Camping suppliers offer water purification filters for use with small amounts of water. Carefully follow the instructions that come with the filter.

Once you have purified some water, make sure that no germs or parasite eggs get in it before you use it. Keep it in a clean container covered with a lid. Use the purified water when preparing meals. You cannot kill germs by adding chlorine bleach to fruit drink after it is made. Broths and drinks that are boiled are purified by the boiling.

Music

Using the Songs

The songs on the following pages are for use at Young Women camps, but they may also be useful for other Young Women activities as well as for general church and home use.

Chording

The chord symbols above the text can be used with instruments such as the guitar, ukulele, or autoharp, as well as the electronic keyboard or piano. Generally the accompanist can play the same chord until another chord symbol is given. If a chord symbol appears in parentheses, the chord change is optional. (See Children’s Songbook, p. 303, for additional information.)

Guitar Chord Diagrams

guitar chord diagram

Guitar chord diagrams are found at the bottom of each page of songs.

In each diagram, the vertical lines represent strings, and the horizontal lines represent frets. The dots show where to place the fingers of the left hand. Placing the fingers as close to the frets as possible without touching them will produce the best sound.

guitar chord fret

A number to the right of a diagram shows the fret where the chord position begins. In this example, the index finger should be on the third fret from the top.

guitar chord xo

An x above a string shows that the guitarist should not sound that string while playing the chord. An o above a string shows that the guitarist should play that string but not finger it.

guitar chord phrase

A phrase mark connecting two dots shows that one finger should hold down more than one string.

Capo

A capo is a guitar attachment that allows the guitarist to raise the pitch of a song while using the fingering of the chords shown for the song. Placing the capo on the first fret raises the pitch a half step. Each succeeding fret raises the pitch another half step. For example, if you play a C chord with a capo on the second fret, you will be playing a D chord.

Copyrights

All songs in this book may be copied for noncommercial church, home, or camp use without permission of the copyright owners.

music, All Things Bright and Beautiful

music, Tell Me Why

music, Sing Your Way Home

music, He’s Got the Whole World in His Hands

music, When the Saints Go Marching In

music, Downright, Upright

music, If You’re Happy

music, Fun to Do

music, Good Morning

music, Our Door Is Always Open

music, Sing a Song

music, White Coral Bells

music, I Love the Mountains

music, I Walk By Faith 1

music, I Walk By Faith 2

music, I Walk By Faith 3

music, Walk Tall, You’re a Daughter of God

music, I’m Trying to Be Like Jesus

music, I Feel My Savior’s Love

music, I Am a Child of God

music, Love One Another

music, Teach Me to Walk in the Light

music, We Thank Thee, O God, for a Prophet

music, Joseph Smith’s First Prayer

music, Now the Day Is Over

music, The Spirit of God

If there were a gold medal awarded for long-distance commuting among birds, it would probably go to the Arctic tern. With its black cap, bright red beak, and forked tail, this seabird nests in the summer on the Arctic tundra, where it enjoys twenty-four hours of sunlight each day. When the young are ready to fly, they migrate all the way to the shores of Patagonia and Antarctica. From the Arctic to the Antarctic and back, these terns make a 22,000-mile commute each year!